Neuroscience Flashcards
What is the central sulcus?
What’s another name for the central sulcus?
It divides frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
Fissure of Rolando
What’s the precentral gyrus and what is its function?
The precentral gyrus (part of the frontal lobe) is
the primary motor cortex.
What’s the postcentral gyrus and what is its function?
The postcentral gyrus (part of the parietal lobe) is the primary somatosensory cortex with.
What’s the lateral sulcus (aka Sylvian fissure)?
The lateral sulcus (Sylvian fissure) divides frontal lobe from the temporal lobe.
What is the insula?
A structure that is sometimes regarded as the fifth lobe of the cerebrum, is located deep in the Sylvian fissure. Insula is the seat of the primary gustatory cortex.
Where is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (in between which sulci and in which gyrus) and what does it do?
In between the superior and inferior frontal sulci in the MIDDLE FRONTAL GYRUS
It is considered to be responsible for executive functions of the human brain.
What’s the function of the the superior frontal gyrus?
The superior frontal gyrus (SFG) is thought to contribute to higher cognitive functions and particularly to working memory (WM)
Where is the inferior frontal gyrus and what is its function?
Located in between the inferior frontal sulcus and the lateral sulcus
Inferior frontal gyrus can be split into:
- pars orbitalis
- pars triangularis
- pars opecularis
The inferior frontal gyrus has a number of functions including the processing of speech and language in Broca’s area
Where’s the cingulate gyrus and what’s its function?
Medial side of the frontal lobe
The anterior portion of the adjoining cingulate gyrus is considered to be the seat of motivation.
Regulation of aggressive behaviour
Co-ordinates the response to pain
Where’s the orbitofrontal cortex and what is its function?
Located in the orbital gyrus on the inferior frontal lobe
The orbitofrontal cortex is often considered to be the seat of associative learning and decision-making.
Where’s the primary auditory cortex?
The superior temporal gyrus
What’s the function of the inferior temporal gyrus?
The inferior temporal gyrus helps process visual information
What is the interparietal sulcus?
Separates the superior and inferior parietal lobes
What makes up the inferior parietal lobe and what is the function?
The inferior parietal lobe is made of the angular gyrus and supramarginal gyrus and is considered to be important for visuospatial attention
What’s the function of the superior parietal lobe?
Spatial orientation, and receives a great deal of visual input as well as sensory input from one’s hand.
Where is the primary visual (striate) cortex?
Calcarine sulcus in the medial occipital cortex
What % of right handed people have right hemisphere dominance?
What % of left handed people have right hand dominance and what % have bilateral dominance?
In right-handed people, the left hemisphere is mostly dominant. In 10% of right-handed people, the right hemisphere is dominant.
Among left-handed people only about 20% are right
hemisphere dominant, with 64% left hemisphere dominant and 16% showing bilateral dominance.
Where’s the planum temporale and what’s the function?
What asymmetry is seen?
In which condition is asymmetry affected?
Triangular region on the upper surface of the
superior temporal gyrus
-It is important for language processing and is larger on the left than the right hemisphere in 65% brains
In which hemisphere is language processed for most people?
Left hemisphere
Left sided lesion cause aphasia
What’s the Papez circuit?
What’s the fucntion?
hippocampus → fornix → mammillary bodies →
mammillothalamic tract → anterior thalamic nucleus → genu of the internal capsule → cingulate
gyrus → parahippocampal gyrus → entorhinal cortex → perforant pathway → back to
hippocampus
Emotional processing
Outside of Papez circuit what are the other structures of the limbic system?
amygdala, septum, basal forebrain, nucleus accumbens, and orbitofrontal cortex.
What’s the Papez circuit?
What’s the fucntion?
hippocampus → fornix → mammillary bodies →
mammillothalamic tract → anterior thalamic nucleus → genu of the internal capsule → cingulate gyrus → parahippocampal gyrus → entorhinal cortex → perforant pathway → back to hippocampus
Emotional processing
What does the hypothalamus do?
influences neuroendocrine responses
What does the amygdala do?
mediation of emotional responses
plays a role in fear conditioning
What does the hippocampus do?
What’s special about the neurons there?
appears to play an important role in memory processes. It is one of the few brain regions where the continuous production of new neurons is noted even in adult life.
What are the components of the basal ganglia?
striatum - caudate nucleus and putamen
pallidum - globus pallidus internal and external
Putamen and globus pallidus are sometimes called lenticular/lentiform nucleus
The subthalamic nuclei and the substantia nigra are both functionally related to the basal ganglia but are not considered to be a part of this structure
Function of the basal ganglia?
Collection of nuclei that are involved in the planning and programming of movement, and also have a role in the processes by which an abstract thought is converted into voluntary action
Direct pathway - allows voluntary movement (striatum, substantia nigra and subthalamic nuclei disinhibit the thalamus via stopping the disinhibitory action of globus pallidus internal)
Indirect pathway - stops involuntary movement (further inhibition of the thalamus via excitation of the globus pallidus internal)
What are the five important circuits involving the basal ganglia?
- Motor circuit
- Oculomotor circuit
- Dorsolateral prefrontal circuit (executive)
- Anterior cingulate circuit (motivation)
- Lateral orbitofrontal circuit (social intelligence)
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in OCD?
Volumetric changes and higher blood flow to the caudate nuclei. Increased caudate metabolism in untreated subjects reduces after effective treatment.
ALSO LENTIFORM NUCLEUS
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in Tourette’s syndrome?
Striatal dopaminergic dysfunction
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in Huntington chorea?
Degeneration of the striatum (mainly caudate nucleus) & selective loss of GABAergic (inhibitory) neurons
STRIATAL DEGENERATION
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in Wilsons disease?
Copper deposits in the lenticular nuclei
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in hemiballismus?
Subthalamic nucleus damage (especially infarction)
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in CO poisoning?
Acute bilateral anoxic damage to basal ganglia
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction in Parkinsonism?
Depigmentation of Substantia Nigra; Lewy bodies are seen
Striatal overactivity associated with bradykinesia
What is the nature of basal ganglia dysfunction Fahr’s disease?
Progressive calcium deposition in the basal ganglia. (early onset cases present with schizophreniform psychoses and catatonia; later onset cases exhibit dementia and choreoathetosis)
What’s the function of the hypothalamus?
- The hypothalamus has chemoreceptors that respond to variations in glucose levels, osmolarity, acid balance, etc
- It influences neuroendocrine responses
- It regulates physiological functions such as eating, drinking, sleeping, and temperature regulation
What’s the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus? What might be noted in animals with a lesion of the ventromedial hypothalamus?
What’s the function of the lateral hypothalamus?
The ventromedial hypothalamus acts as the satiety
center (In animals with a lesion of ventromedial hypothalamus hyperphagia and obesity are noted)
The lateral hypothalamus is the feeding center.
Where is the inferior olivary nucleus and what is its function?
The inferior olivary nucleus is located in the brainstem and aids in motor coordination by projecting climbing fibers to the contralateral cerebellar cortex via inferior cerebellar peduncle
What is seen in lesions that affect the olivary nucleus?
Appendicular ataxia due to motor incoordination of the
contralateral arm and leg (unlike cerebellar lesions where ipsilateral motor incoordination is noted)
What’s the function of the cerebellum?
The cerebellum has the important role of preparing a
motor plan and predicting balance needed between
muscle groups to carry out the intended action smoothly.
What are the components of the brainstem?
midbrain, pons and the medulla
What are the superior and inferior colliculi and what are their functions?
superior colliculi - conjugate gaze control
inferior colliculi - auditory source localisation
What are the cranial nerves?
oh oh oh to touch and feel virgin girls vaginas and hymens
Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibular Glossopharyngeal Vagus Accessory Hypoglossal
What are the functions of the cranial nerves?
I Olfactory
II Optic - Relays via thalamus (geniculate body)
III Oculomotor - Supplies four of the six ocular muscles
IV Trochlear - Supplies superior oblique (ocular muscle)
V Trigeminal - Transmits facial sensation and controls jaw muscles
VI Abducens - Supplies lateral abducens (ocular muscle)
INFERIOR OLIVARY NUCLEUS
Inferior olivary nucleus is located in the
brainstem and aids in motor coordination by
projecting climbing fibers to the contralateral
cerebellar cortex via inferior cerebellar
peduncle.
Inferior olivary lesions lead to appendicular
ataxia due to motor incoordination of the
contralateral arm and leg. Patients with
inferior olivary lesions will fail the finger-nose
test, mimicking cerebellar lesion. But unlike
cerebellar lesions that result in ipsilateral motor
incoordination, the contralateral side is affected
in olivary lesions.
VII Facial - Transmits taste sensation and controls facial muscles
VIII Vestibular - Transmits auditory sensation
Cochlear Transmits balance sensation
IX Glossopharyngeal - Motor control of pharynx; parasympathetic control of the parotid gland; taste from the back of the tongue
X Vagus - Motor control of larynx and pharynx; parasympathetic control of the viscera; visceral
sensations
XI Accessory - motor control of neck muscles
XII Hypoglossal - motor control of tongue muscles
Which cranial nerves have sensory, motor or both functions?
some say money matters but my brother says big boobs matter most
Olfactory - S Optic - S Oculomotor - M Trochlear - M Trigeminal - B Abducens - M Facial - B Vestibular - S Glossopharyngeal - B Vagus - B Accessory - M Hypoglossal - M
What are the tracts of the spinal cord?
The dorsal column carries proprioceptive sensory fibres
the anterior and lateral columns are made of ascending spinothalamic tracts carrying touch, pressure,
pain and temperature sensations
What secretes CSF?
CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus in the lateral, third and fourth ventricles and at a rate of 300 ml/day,
which is almost protein free
What’s the route of CSF?
From lateral ventricle to 3rd ventricle via interventricular foramina of Monroe;
From 3rd to 4th ventricle via cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius;
From 4th ventricle to subarachnoid space via foramen of Magendie (single) and foramina of Luschka (two lateral).
What does the internal carotid artery divide to form on entering the circle of Willis?
The internal carotid artery enters the circle of Willis and divides to form the anterior cerebral and middle
cerebral arteries
What does the anterior cerebral artery supply?
The anterior cerebral artery supplies the medial and superior strip of the lateral aspect of the cerebral
cortex up to the parietal/occipital border.
What does the middle cerebral artery supply?
The middle cerebral artery supplies most of the lateral aspect of the cerebral cortex. This includes the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the dominant hemispheres
What does the posterior cerebral artery arise from and what does it supply?
The posterior cerebral artery arises from basilar artery and supplies the inferomedial temporal lobe and the
occipital lobe.
What do the inferior cerebellar arteries and anterior spinal branches of the vertebral arteries supply?
Medulla
Which blood vessels supply the pons?
Pontine branches of the basilar artery
What are some of the feature of carotid system TIA?
•Amaurosis fugax (due to blockade of retinal arteries) •Aphasia •Hemiparesis •Hemisensory loss •Hemianopic visual loss
What are some of the feature of vertebrobasilar TIA?
- Diplopia, vertigo, vomiting
- Choking and dysarthria
- Ataxia
- Alexia without agraphia
- Hemisensory loss
- Hemianopic visual loss
- Transient global amnesia
- Tetraparesis
- Loss of consciousness (rare)
What are the effects of a lesion of the anterior cerebral artery?
Bilateral infarct produces contralateral quadriparesis (legs weaker than arms) and akinetic mutism (ventromedial or cingulate syndrome)
motor dysphasia
sensory loss of contralateral foot and leg
What are the effects of a lesion of recurrent artery of
Huebner (branch of ACA)?
This supplies the head of the caudate nucleus
Lesions initially lead to an agitated, confused state; evolves to akinesia, abulia, with mutism and personality changes
What are the effects of a lesion of the anterior branches of the upper division of the Middle Cerebral Artery?
Planning deficits, impairment of working memory,
and apathy. (DLPFC dysfunction)
What are the effects of a lesion of the Anterior communicating artery?
Akinesia and personality change (orbitofrontal
dysfunction) with a confabulatory amnesia resembling Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
What are the effects of a lesion of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA)?
Wallenberg’s lateral medullary syndrome.
Acute vertigo with cerebellar signs.
Ipsilateral face numbness, diplopia, nystagmus, Horner’s syndrome and IX/X nerve palsy with contralateral spinothalamic sensory loss and mild hemiparesis.
What are the three types of white matter tracts?
Projection fibers run vertically connecting higher and
lower centers of the brain.
Association fibers interconnect different regions within the same hemisphere of the brain.
Commissural fibers interconnect similar regions in the opposite hemisphere.
What are some important commissural fibers?
Corpus callosum
Anterior commissure (interconnects olfactory bulbs), Posterior commissure (interconnects midbrain pretectal nuclei)
Hippocampal commissure
Habenular commissure (interconnects posterior dorsal thalamic nuclei)
What is the pericallosal artery and what happens in vascular disruption?
derived from the anterior cerebral artery provides blood supply to the anterior and body of corpus callosum
Left sided apraxia and agnosia may be seen in cases
of vascular disruption
What is the splenium? What’s its blood supply? What happens with disruption?
splenium = posterior aspect of the corpus callosum
suppled by posterior cerebral artery
disrupted supply prevents right visual cortex accessing the dominant hemispheric processes such as
language resulting in ALEXIA AND COLOUR ANOMIA
but with preserved ability to copy words as motor
information is relayed via anterior corpus callosum
How many layers is the neocortex made up of?
What are layers 2 and 4?
What are layers 5 and 6?
The neocortex is made up of six layers
Layers 2 and 4 are mainly afferent (receiving inputs) while 5 and 6 are mainly efferent (sending outputs)
Which neurons make up nearly 75% of the cortical
neurons?
The pyramidal neurons
remaining 25% are stellate cells
Which neocortex cell layer does not have stellate cells?
Layer 1
What are the layers of the cerebellar cortex?
The molecular layer consisting of basket cells and stellate cells
Purkinje layer consisting of Purkinje cells
Granular layer consisting of granule and Golgi cells.
What is the function of Purkinje cells?
Purkinje cells form the sole output of all motor coordination in the cerebellum they connect to the deep cerebellar nuclei via inhibitory projections.
They are GABA-ergic neurons
What are Betz cells and where are they found?
Large pyramidal cells called Betz cells are seen in the primary motor cortex.
Betz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex
What are Betz cells and where are they found?
Large pyramidal cells called Betz cells are seen in the primary motor cortex.
Betz cells are pyramidal cell neurons located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex
What are glial cells?
These are cells with supportive metabolic functions;
they also participate in modulating neuronal
functions e.g. via the production of neurosteroids.
What are the three types of glial cells and their functions?
- Astrocytes are the most numerous of the three types. These are star-shaped cells that enable nutrition of neurons, breakdown of some neurotransmitters, and maintaining the blood-brain barrier.
- Oligodendrocytes are seen in CNS (not in peripheral nerves, where Schwann cells replace them). They produce myelin sheaths that help in saltatory conduction (pole to pole jumping), which quicken the process of signal transmission.
- The microglia are descendants of macrophages. They are scavenger cells that clear neuronal debris following cell death.
- Ependymal cells are a special type of glia that
cover the ventricles and facilitate CSF circulation via their ciliary processes.
Where is the blood brain barrier?
What features of the cells make them suitable for this?
The blood- brain barrier is located in endothelial cells
of capillaries of the brain
The brain’s endothelial cells have tight junctions with high electrical resistance providing an effective barrier against molecules.
Which areas of the brain don’t have BBB?
circumventricular organs e.g. subfornical organ, area
postrema (chemo receptor trigger zone), median eminence and posterior pituitary.
What are the dopaminergic pathways of the brain?
Long paths: Nigrostriatal, mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways.
Short paths: Tuberoinfundibular and incertohypothalamic pathway.
What’s the route of the nigrostriatal pathway and what does blockade cause?
Substantia Nigra to striatum and amygdala via medial forebrain bundle
DA deficiency (e.g Parkinson’s) or blockade due
to antipsychotics can cause extrapyramidal side
effects
What’s the route of the mesocortical pathway and what does blockade cause?
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) to cingulate cortex and prefrontal regions via medial forebrain bundle
Low levels of DA or DA blockade in this tract is
associated with negative symptoms (alogia, anhedonia, amotivation and apathy)
What’s the route of the mesolimbic pathway and what does blockade cause?
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) in MIDBRAIN to Nucleus accumbens and hippocampus via medial forebrain bundle
Blockade of DA in this tract produces the desirable antipsychotic effect by controlling positive psychotic symptoms
What’s the route of the tuberoinfundibular pathway and what does blockade cause?
Hypothalamus to the pituitary via portal vessels
Dopamine acts as PIH – prolactin inhibitory
hormone. DA blockade will serve to increase
prolactin levels
What’s the route of the incertohypothalamic pathway and what does blockade cause?
Internal connections within hypothalamus
Disturbed thermoregulation and possibly weight gain
Nominal aphasia (word retrieval failures and difficulty expressing words) can be localised to lesions in which area? What's the blood supply?
The angular gyrus (located on anteriolateral parietal lobe)
blood supply - middle cerebral artery
*angular gyrus is also responsible for normal arithmetical ability
Which area is affected by lesions to the posterior cerebral artery?
Dentate gyrus (hippocampus) - medial temporal lobe
What’s the function of the dentate gyrus?
Involved in the formation of new episodic memories
Which part of the brain is last to mature?
Prefrontal cortex
Where is the lesion likely to be in homonymous superior quadrantanopia?
Damage to Myers loop (inf. optic radiation) - indication of a lesion within the temporal lobe
Which enzyme is exclusively seen in astrocytes?
Glutamate dehydrogenase
What is the function of an endosome?
An endosome is a membrane-bound cellular compartment of the endocytic membrane transport pathway extending from the plasma membrane to the lysosome. Molecules internalized from the plasma membrane are transported via endosomes to lysosomes for degradation; similarly molecules can also be recycled back to the plasma membrane.
Forced utilization behaviour can be a feature of damage to which structure?
Frontal lobe damage (orbitofrontal lobe)
What is included in the prosencephalon?
- Telencephalon, which gives rise to cerebral hemispheres and contains the pallium, rhinencephalon, and basal ganglia
- Diencephalon consisting of thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus consisting of the habenular nucleus and pineal gland
What is included in the mesencephalon?
= MIDBRAIN
- Tectum, in turn consisting of the corpora quadrigemina, made up of the superior and inferior colliculi
- Basis pedunculi
- Tegmentum containing the red nucleus, fibre tracts and grey matter surrounding the cerebral aqueduct.
What is included in the rhombencephalon?
- Metencephalon consisting of the pons, the oral part of the medulla oblongata and cerebellum
- Myelencephalon consisting of the caudal part of the medulla oblongata.
Which is seen as a key function of the non-dominant cerebral hemisphere?
Pictorial memory
Which structure separates the two lateral ventricles in the human brain?
In which condition might this be abnormal?
Septum pellucidum
An anomalous splitting of the septum pellucidum may be more common in schizophrenia than in general population (cavum septum pellucidum).
What’s the location of the third ventricle?
lies between thalamus and hypothalamus
What’s the location of the fourth ventricle?
lies above the pons and just below the cerebellum
What links the third and fourth ventricles?
The Aqueduct of Sylvius
The cerebrospinal fluid passes into the subarachnoid space via recesses in which structure?
From 4th ventricle to subarachnoid space via Foramen of Magendie (single medial foramen) and Foramen of Luschka (two, lateral foramina)
Synaptogenesis is at its highest during which of phase of life?
First 2 years of life
Neural crest cells originate from which embryonic structure?
The neural tube (the precursor of the spinal cord)
The embryonic crest cells migrate to numerous locations in the body to form which structures?
(1) the neurons and glial cells of the sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous systems
(2) the adrenergic cells of the adrenal medulla
(3) the pigment-containing cells of the epidermis
(4) many of the skeletal and connective tissue components of the head
Which lobe is initially affected in Alzheimer’s disease?
Which brain region?
Temporal lobe Entorhinal cortex (layer II)
What percentage of the brain is occupied by prefrontal cortex?
30%
Lesions in which location can cause dysarthria?
Cerebellum
Also
- basal ganglia
- upper motor neurone lesions of the cerebral hemispheres
- lower motor neurone lesions of the brain stem
What do lesions of left hemisphere produce?
Left hemisphere lesions may produce alexia, agraphia, acalculia, colour anomia without aphasia, Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia and Gerstmann syndrome.
What do lesions of right hemisphere produce?
Right hemisphere lesions may produce constructional apraxia, prospagnosia, autotopagnosia, visual spatial agnosia, anosognosia, receptive amusia, and contralateral neglect.
The internal capsule is supplied by which structure?
Circle of Willis
What’s the embryological origin of microglia?
microglial progenitors arise from peripheral mesodermal (myeloid) tissue
What’s the embryological origin of macroglia?
macroglia (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes) and neuron are derived from neuroectoderm
Mirror neurons are found in which part of the brain?
Inferior frontal cortex
Premotor cortex
mirror neurons explain modelling behaviour
The ventral tegmental area is located in which part of the brain?
The midbrain
Nucleus accumbens forms a part structure of the brain?
Ventral striatum
Which structures are involved in the visual pathway?
The medial fibres of the optic nerve cross in the optic chiasma to join the contralateral optic tract. The lateral fibres of the optic nerve pass through the ipsilateral optic tract. The fibres synapse in the LATERAL geniculate body of the thalamus. From here the optic radiation runs within the posterior part of the internal capsule and terminates in the visual cortex
Which area of the brain is associated with ‘social valuation’?
Orbitofrontal cortex
Which type of neurons has no axons?
Amacrine neurons
Which cells constitute the most common cells of the layer 4 of the cerebral cortex that receives thalamic input?
Stelate cells
What are the cellular components of the cortical layers?
Layer 1 contains no major neuronal cell bodies but glial cells and dendrites from neurons of deeper layers and the horizontal cells of Cajal.
Layers 2 and 3 are composed of small pyramidal cells, whose axons project out of and within the hemispheres.
Stellate and fusiform cells lie in layer 4 and provide local connections and receive ascending fibres from the thalamus.
Layer 5 consists of large pyramidal cells.
What is a synapse and what are the three types?
synapse = junction between two nerve cells
- chemical - Presynaptic neuron releases a chemical molecule on stimulation. This molecule acts on the next neuron to bring on a molecular effect or to propagate the impulse further downstream
- electrical
- conjoint
What’s an action potential?
the brief reversal of electric polarisation of the membrane of a nerve cell or muscle cell ->
part of the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out
What’s the resting membrane potential of the neuron?
-70mV
What’s the threshold potential of the neuron and what happens then?
- 55mV.
At -55mV, the Na+ channels present at the axon’s initial segment will open. The subsequent Na+ influx causes rapid reversal of the membrane potential from the negative values to +40mV.
When the membrane potential reaches +40mV, the Na+ channels close and the voltage-gated K+
channels open. As K+ ions move out of the axon, the cell membrane gets “repolarized”.
Which neurochemical substances act as mediators of increased appetite?
ghrelin and neuropeptide Y
Which neurochemical substances act as mediators of satiety?
Leptin, cholecystokinin and serotonin
Where is ghrelin synthesised?
Gastric mucosa
Where is leptin synthesised?
Adipose cells
What are the 2 centers that control body temperature in the hypothalamus?
Preoptic anterior hypothalamus acts as a hypothermic center - stimulating the preoptic anterior hypothalamus results in parasympathetic-mediated sweating and vasodilation, resulting in hypothermia
Posterior hypothalamus acts as a hyperthermic center - stimulating the posterior hypothalamus results in sympathetic drive, shivers and vasoconstriction, leading to hyperthermia.
Lesions in which region of the brain reduce the diurnal temperature variation?
median eminence
Which area of the brain plays a crucial role in pain perception?
The thalamus
What is thalamic pain syndrome and what causes it?
contralateral loss of sensation with burning or aching pain triggered by light cutaneous stimulation
occurs in cases of stroke involving thalamoperforating branches of posterior cerebral artery
Which circumventricular organs playing a crucial role in the perception of thirst?
Subfornical organ (SFO) and organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)
Which circumventricular organs playing a crucial role in the perception of thirst?
Subfornical organ (SFO) and organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)
The hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus is also involved in the regulation of thirst
