Neuroscience Flashcards
1
Q
3 Most Important Parts of life?
A
Metabolism
Homeosthasis
Organisation
2
Q
The nervous system came from which layer?
A
Ectoderm (the same as skin)
3
Q
Three primary germ layer
A
- Ectoderm
- Mesoderm
- Endoderm
4
Q
Glutamate
A
Glutamate is involved in most brain functions, including cognition, memory and learning. Scientists discovered it as an abundant chemical in the brain over 70 years ago, but only recently identified it as a neurotransmitter. Glutamate is stored in small sacs in neurons (nerve cells) and remains inactive until a nerve impulse triggers its release.
5
Q
GABA
A
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is very widely distributed in the neurons of the cortex. GABA contributes to motor control, vision, and many other cortical functions. It also regulates anxiety.
Some drugs that increase the level of GABA in the brain are used to treat epilepsy and to calm the trembling of people suffering from Huntington’s disease.
6
Q
Acetylcholine
A
Acetylcholine is a very widely distributed excitatory neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction and stimulates the excretion of certain hormones. In the central nervous system, it is involved in wakefulness, attentiveness, anger, aggression, sexuality, and thirst, among other things.
Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a lack of acetylcholine in certain regions of the brain.
7
Q
Dopamine
A
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in controlling movement and posture. It also modulates mood and plays a central role in positive reinforcement and dependency.
The loss of dopamine in certain parts of the brain causes the muscle rigidity typical of Parkinson’s disease.
8
Q
Serotonin
A
Serotonin contributes to various functions, such as regulating body temperature, sleep, mood, appetite, and pain.
Depression, suicide, impulsive behaviour, and agressiveness all appear to involve certain imbalances in serotonin.
9
Q
Norepinephrine
A
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is important for attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and learning. Norepinephrine is also released as a hormone into the blood, where it causes blood vessels to contract and heart rate to increase.
Norepinephrine plays a role in mood disorders such as manic depression.
10
Q
The main anatomical terms for directions
A
Anterior vs. posterior (front vs back)
Superior vs. inferior (top vs bottom)
Lateral vs. Medial (outside vs middle)
Cortical vs. subcortical
11
Q
The three brains theory
A
The triune brain consists of the reptilian complex, the paleomammalian complex (limbic system), and the neomammalian complex (neocortex), viewed as structures sequentially added to the forebrain in the course of evolution. However, this hypothesis is no longer espoused by the majority of comparative neuroscientists in the post-2000 era.
12
Q
White vs Grey Mater
A
Grey matter, which has a pinkish-grey color in the living brain, contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons, so it is where all synapses are. White matter is made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to each other.
13
Q
The oldest association between damage to brain and cognitive deficits was around…?
A
Around 5,000 years ago
14
Q
Emmanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772)
A
In his medical writing postulates cerebral localisation of physical and mental functions (one of the earliest people to come up with localisation):
Motor functions in the centrolateral area
Intellect in the frontal regions
15
Q
Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828):
cranioscopy & phrenology
A
1. Human mental capacity consists of different separable functions 2. The functions can be localised in specific parts of the brain 3. The use of a function increases the size of specific brain region 4. The growth of a brain regions leads to development of detectable lumps in the skull
16
Q
Pierre Paul Broca
1824-1880
A
Broca’s area is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the hominid brain with functions linked to speech production. Language processing has been linked to Broca’s area since Pierre Paul Broca reported impairments in two patients.
17
Q
Limitations of fMRI
A
Indirect measure of neuronal activity
Neuronal activity can reflect activation as well as inhibition
An activation does not mean that a region:
Is dedicated to the function
Is necessary for the function
The lack of activation can mean (among others):
Subliminal activation
Permanent activation
Individual variation
18
Q
MEG
A
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers.
19
Q
TMS
A
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression. TMS is typically used when other depression treatments haven’t been effective.
20
Q
Mirror Neurons
A
Discovered originally in monkeys
By Giacomo Rizzolatti in Parma
Different localisation: frontal and parietal lobes
React to goal-oriented movement
21
Q
Impaired perception of ______ emotion is associated with amygdala damage
A
Fear
22
Q
Impaired perception of ______ emotion is associated with Basal Ganglia & Insula damage
A
Disgust
23
Q
Impaired perception of ______ emotion is associated with Ventral Striatum damage
A
Anger
24
Q
Advantages of Functional Neuroimaging
A
In-vivo study of brain function in normal controls Tasks can be controlled for = experimental design Brings in a lot of money (grants, media attention etc.)
25
Patient DR
We report here a further investigation of one of these rare cases, a woman (D.R.) who has impaired perception of the intonation patterns that are essential to the perception of vocal affect, despite normal hearing. As is the case for recognition of facial expressions, it is recognition of fear and anger that is most severely affected in the auditory domain. This shows that the amygdala's role in the recognition of certain emotions is not confined to vision, which is consistent with its being involved in the appraisal of danger and the emotion of fear
26
Patient SE
Damaged Amygdala - couldn't recognise the facial expression of fear
27
Time pattern on stroke
A single, acute event followed by a gradual recovery
28
Time pattern of neurodegeneration
Insidious onset followed by a gradual deterioration
29
Time pattern of infections
Crescendo-decrescendo pattern
30
Time pattern of schizophrenia
Relapsing-remitting course
31
5 main disease groups
```
Stroke
Tumours
Inflammation
Trauma
Neurodegeneration
```
32
Stroke
A stroke is a serious life-threatening medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off.
33
Ischemic Stroke
- Blocked Artery
- Most common type of stroke
- Blocked by clotting which often occurs due to cholesterol plaques
- Sometimes caused by heart related conditions in which the heart doesn't pump properly
34
Hemorrhagic Stroke
- Ruptured Artery
| - Often caused by high blood pressure or overuse of blood-thinners
35
Aphasia
Aphasia is when a person has difficulty with their language or speech. It's usually caused by damage to the left side of the brain (for example, after a stroke).
36
Wernicke's Aphasia
Wernicke's (Receptive) Aphasia. In this form of aphasia the ability to grasp the meaning of spoken words and sentences is impaired, while the ease of producing connected speech is not very affected.
37
Broca's Aphasia
Broca's Aphasia (expressive) When a stroke injures the frontal regions of the left hemisphere, different kinds of language problems can occur. This part of the brain is important for putting words together to form complete sentences.
38
Santiago Ramon y Cajal
- Neuron Doctrine
| - Non-regeneration (but now - neuroplasticity)
39
Piazza del Duomo Test
Representational neglect, which is characterized by the failure to report left-sided details of a mental image from memory, can occur after a right hemisphere lesion.
40
Joseph Babinski
Discovered
- Anosognosia
- Anosodiaphoria
41
Anosognosia
Anosognosia, also called "lack of insight," is a symptom of severe mental illness experienced by some that impairs a person's ability to understand and perceive his or her illness. It is the single largest reason why people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder refuse medications or do not seek treatment.
42
Anosodiaphoria
Joseph Babinski first used the term anosodiaphoria in 1914 to describe a disorder of the body schema in which patients verbally acknowledge a clinical problem (such as hemiparesis) but fail to be concerned about it.
43
The seven classical
| neuropsychological syndromes
```
Aphasia
Agnosia
Apraxia
Amnesia
Anopia (anopsia)
Hemineglect
Anosognosia/anosodiaphoria
```
44
Agnosia
inability to interpret sensations and hence to recognize things, typically as a result of brain damage.
45
Apraxia
Apraxia is a motor disorder caused by damage to the brain (specifically the posterior parietal cortex) in which the individual has difficulty with the motor planning to perform tasks or movements when asked, provided that the request or command is understood and he/she is willing to perform the task.
46
Amnesia
Amnesia is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The memory can be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused.
47
Anopia (anopsia)
An anopsia or anopia is a defect in the visual field. If the defect is only partial, then the portion of the field with the defect can be used to isolate the underlying cause. Types of partial anopsia: Hemianopsia. Homonymous hemianopsia.
48
Hemineglect
Hemineglect, also known as unilateral neglect, hemispatial neglect or spatial neglect, is a common and disabling condition following brain damage in which patients fail to be aware of items to one side of space.
49
Which factors can influence the results
| in cognitive neuroscience?
Genes
Lifetime experience
Culture & society
Circumstances of the examination
50
Arnold Pick
Discovered frontotemporal dementia - a term for a group of neurodegenerative diseases with symptoms attributable to frontal and temporal lobe dysfunction. Common symptoms that are noticed early are personality and emotional changes, as well as deterioration of language.
51
Doctors and researchers divide frontotemporal dementia into three categories. These include:
- behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia: affects personality and behavior
- primary progressive aphasia/Semantic Dementia: affects speech at first and then behavior
- progressive nonfluent aphasia: causes people to lose their ability to recall and speak words
52
Patient JW
- Accountant
- Seen in 1991 and no complaints
- Strange behaviour as wife
- Starts overeating and becomes apathetic etc
- Poor self care after and little conversation as well as a decline on frontal and memory tests
- Fv FTD developed
53
Alzheimer's disease (AD)
A chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time. It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (short-term memory loss). As the disease advances, symptoms can include problems with language, disorientation (including easily getting lost), mood swings, loss of motivation, not managing self care, and behavioural issues. As a person's condition declines, they often withdraw from family and society.[1] Gradually, bodily functions are lost, ultimately leading to death. Although the speed of progression can vary, the typical life expectancy following diagnosis is three to nine years.
54
Both fvFTD and AD Patients have ToM tests problems but specifically...
FTD Struggles more with
= Faux Pas test
= Eyes in the mind test
= 1st Order false belief
AD
= 2nd order false belief but just slightly more than FTD
55
PNFA vs Alzheimer's
The specific degeneration of the frontal and temporal lobes in PNFA creates hallmark language deficits differentiating this disorder from other Alzheimer-type disorders by the initial absence of other cognitive and memory deficits.
56
Differences in SD and AD patients at Semantic vs Episodic Memory tasks
- SD do bad at semantic memory tasks and just slightly worse than controls at episodic memory tasks
- AD do bad at episodic memory tasks and just slightly worse than controls at semantic memory tasks
57
Left vs Right predominant SD patients
Experiments find poorer understanding of names/words in left-predominant patients and of faces/pictures/models in right-predominant cases.
58
Boston Cookie Theft Experiment
"Tell me everything you see going on in this picture"
SD patients are affected by their use of verbs and nouns though nouns were affected a lot more
59
The building stones of life:
- Aminoacids/Peptides/Proteins/Enzymes
- Lipids
- DNA/RNA
60
7 Most Important Aspects of Life?
```
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Organisation
Adaptation
Growth
Reproduction
Reaction to stimuli
```
61
Describe Cell Membranes
Borders between the cell and the outside world
Made up of 2 lipid layers
Have protein molecules for transporting and signalling
62
What are Eukaryotic cells?
A eukaryotic cell is any cell with a true nucleus and organelles. The nucleus contains the majority of the cell’s DNA and is the genetic hub of a eukaryotic cell
63
What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?
The endosymbiotic theory is the accepted mechanism for how eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells.
First published by Lynn Margulis in the late 1960s, the Endosymbiont Theory proposed that the main organelles of the eukaryotic cell were actually primitive prokaryotic cells that had been engulfed by a different, bigger prokaryotic cell. The term "endosymbiosis" means "to cooperate inside". Whether the larger cell provided protection for the smaller cells, or the smaller cells provided energy to the larger cell, this arrangement seemed to be mutually beneficial to all of the prokaryotes.
64
What did Hodgkins and Huxley (1963) find?
Studying squids, they discovered the action potential
65
What are the 2 most important classes of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons
| Glial Cells
66
Describe the structure of a neuron
```
Soma
Dendrites
Axon
Axon Terminals
Synapse
Myelin
Nodes of Ranvier
```
67
Describe the process of Neuronal Signaling
Neurons begin at a resting potential of around -70 milivolts, during which no signals will be transmitted
An adjacent neuron sends neurotransmitters that bind to the dendrites of the neuron
If these neurotransmitters are excitatory, then gated ion channels will open up to permit ambient sodium ions (Na+) into the cell (making the potential more positive). If these neurotransmitters are inhibitory, then gated ion channels will open up to permit internal potassium ions (K+) out of the cell (making the potential more negative)
For an action potential to be generated, enough excitatory neurotransmitters must be present to raise the charge above a certain threshold level. Once this level is exceeded, an all-or-none electrical potential is sent down the length of the axon (depolarization)
After depolarizing, the neuron's ion pumps begin working to reestablish the resting potential. While the neuron is doing so, it enters a refractory period during which no further action potentials can be generated. (hyperpolarization)
Once the potential has been restored, the neuron is ready for a new stimulus
68
Describe the process of Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic transmission is the biological process by which a neuron communicates with a target cell across a synapse.
Chemical synaptic transmission involves the release of a neurotransmitter from the pre-synaptic neuron, and neurotransmitter binding to specific post-synaptic receptors.
Neurotransmitters must be removed from the receptor after binding. This removal can be accomplished by (a) active reuptake back into the presynaptic terminal, (b) enzymatic breakdown of the transmitter in the synaptic cleft, or (c) diffusion of the neurotransmitter away from the region of the synapse
Electrical synapse transmission involves the transfer of electrical signals through gap junctions.
69
What does the Neuron Soma contain?
```
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Golgi Apparatus
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
```
70
What are the advantages of chemical synapses?
roader range of actions because it's not 1 or 0
71
What is the role of Glial Cells?
To surround neurons and hold them in place
To supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
To form myelin in the nervous system
To destroy and remove the carcasses of dead neurons (clean up)
72
Describe briefly the structure of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) -> Brain + Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) -> Nerves + Ganglia (groups of neurons)
Autonomic Nervous System -> Sympathetic + Parasympathetic Systems
73
Describe the main anatomical structures of the spinal cord
```
White Matter
Grey Matter
Dorsal and Ventral Horns
Central Canal
Dorsal and Ventral Roots
Spinal Nerve
```
74
Describe the anatomical directions used in Cognitive Neuroscience
```
Dorsal
Ventral
Superior
Inferior
Rostral
Caudal
Medial
Lateral
Proximal
Distal
Coronal Section
Axial/Horizontal Section
Sagittal Section
```
75
What is the function of the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)?
This fluid allows the brain to float to help offset the pressure that would be present if the brain were merely sitting on the base of the skull. CSF also reduces shock to the brain and spinal cord during rapid accelerations or decelerations, such as when we fall or are struck on the head
76
Describe the 3 main parts of the Brainstem
Medulla -> helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation. Sensory and motor neurons (nerve cells) from the forebrain and midbrain travel through the medulla
Pons & Cerebellum ->
- The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture
- The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity
Midbrain -> composed of the tectum and tegmentum. The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing
77
Describe the 2 main parts of the Diencephalon
Thalamus -> Responsible for relaying of sensory signals, including motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness
Hypothalamus -> Important for the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system. It controls functions necessary for the maintenance of homeostasis. The pituitary gland releases hormones into the bloodstream where they can circulate to influence other tissues and organs (e.g., gonads)
78
Describe the 3 main parts of the Telencephalon
Limbic System -> The structures and interacting areas of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex. The main structures within it are the Hippocampus, the Amygdala and the Hypothalamus
Basal Ganglia -> The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion
Cerebral Cortex -> The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of the brain that covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum. It is covered by the gray matter. The cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the quantity of information that can be processed.
79
What are the 4 main Lobes of the brain?
Frontal -> The frontal lobe is for planning, cognitive control, and execution of movements
Parietal -> The parietal lobe receives sensory input about touch, pain, temperature, and limb position, and it is involved in coding space and coordinating actions
Temporal -> The temporal lobe contains auditory, visual, and multimodal processing areas
Occipital -> The occipital lobe processes visual information. The limbic lobe (not really a lobe) is involved in emotional processing, learning, and memory
80
Define Neuronal Proliferation
The process of cell division in the developing embryo and fetus. It is responsible for populating the nervous system with neurons
81
Alzheimer’s
Degenerative
Difficulty in remembering recent events, problems with language, disorientation, mood swings
Alzheimer's disease is characterised by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This loss results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus
82
Parkinson's
Degenerative
Shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, difficulty walking
The main pathological characteristics of PD are cell death in the brain's basal ganglia (affecting up to 70% of the dopamine secreting neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta by the end of life) and the presence of Lewy bodies (accumulations of the protein alpha-synuclein) in many of the remaining neurons
83
Huntington’s
Degenerative
Problems with mood, mental abilities, coordination, jerky body movements
Gross examination of the brain reveals atrophy of the caudate nucleus and putamen and dilatation of the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles, which are obvious on MRI in advanced cases
84
Pick’s
Degenerative
Language and thinking, efforts to dissociate from family, behavioral changes, unwarranted anxiety, irrational fears, CBD (compulsive buying disorder), impaired regulation of social conduct
A defining characteristic of the disease is Frontotemporal atrophy and the build-up of tau proteins in neurons, accumulating into silver-staining, spherical aggregations known as "Pick bodies"
85
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP)
Degenerative
Impaired balance, slowed movements, difficulty moving eyes, dementia
The principal areas of the brain affected are the: Basal Ganglia, Brainstem and the Cerebral Cortex, particularly that of the Frontal Lobes
86
Multiple Sclerosis
Possibly Infectious/Nutritional
Double vision, blindness in one eye, muscle weakness, trouble with sensation, trouble with coordination
The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system (also called plaques), inflammation, and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons
87
Korsakoff’s
Nutritional
Korsakoff syndrome is a chronic memory disorder caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B-1). Korsakoff syndrome is most commonly caused by alcohol misuse
It is associated with the destruction of neurons in the Diencephalon and the Temporal Lobes
88
What are the main causes of brain damage that cognitive neuroscientists study?
Brain Lesions
Cerebral Vascular Accidents (Strokes) -> Disrupted blood flow to the brain
Tumors
Neurodegenerative Disorders
Neurological Trauma
Epilepsy -> Abnormal and excessive activity in the brain
(Black Cops Torture Numerous Noble Eskimos)
89
What is the difference between Single and Double Dissociation Studies?
Both provide evidence for selective impairment
Single Dissociation = In psychological research, a single dissociation is when a manipulation leaves one cognitive function (say, A) intact whilst severing another (say, B). This indicates the functions A and B are at least partially independent
Double Dissociation = Double Dissociation is when two related mental processes are shown to function independently of each other. A classic example of Double Dissociation is speech and language comprehension. Although both processes pertain to use of language, the brain structures that control them work independently
90
Deep-Brain-Stimulation (DBS)
When electrodes are implanted in the basal ganglia. These devices produce continuous electrical signals that stimulate neural activity
91
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression
92
Computed Axial Tomography (CAT)
Computed tomography (CT) is an imaging procedure that uses special x-ray equipment to create detailed pictures, or 3D scans, of areas inside the body
93
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to generate images of the organs in the body
94
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), performed with magnetic resonance scanners, is used to measure white matter pathways in the brain and thus can offer information about anatomical connectivity between regions
95
Single Cell Recordings
Single-cell recording allows neurophysiologists to record from individual neurons in the animal brain in order to understand how increases and decreases in the activity of neurons correlate with stimulation of one of the senses or behavior
96
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain. The EEG signal includes endogenous changes in electrical activity as well as changes triggered by specific events (e.g., stimuli or movements)
97
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic signals generated by the brain. The electrical activity of neurons also produces small magnetic fields, which can be measured by sensitive magnetic detectors placed along the scalp. MEG can be used in an event-related manner similar to ERPs, with similar temporal resolution. The spatial resolution can be superior because magnetic signals are minimally distorted by organic tissue such as the brain or skull
98
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Positron emission tomography (PET) measures metabolic activity in the brain by monitoring the distribution of a radioactive tracer. The PET scanner measures the photons that are produced during decay of the tracer. A popular tracer is 15O because it decays rapidly, and the distribution of oxygen increases to neural regions that are active
99
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) uses MRI to measure changes in the oxygen content of the blood (hemodynamic response). These changes are assumed to be correlated with local changes in neuronal activity
100
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Neuroimaging?
Advantages
- A unique opportunity to observe brain in action
Disadvantages
- Indirect measure of neural activity
- Active =/= essential
- Subliminal & constant activity (subtraction paradigm vs. default network)
- Non-ecological environment
101
Classical Dissociation Between different cognitive domains
Memory & behaviour/executive functions
Visuospatial cognition & executive functions
Cognition vs. Emotion
102
Classical Dissociation within Memory
Working vs. LTM
Declarative vs. procedural
Within declarative: Episodic vs. Semantic
103
Classical Dissociation within Language
Speaking vs. singing
Words vs. sentences
Within words: nouns vs. verbs
104
Describe what is meant by Mirror Neurons
A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires when an animal acts, when the animal observes the same action performed by another, when an act is inferred, and when it is heard
Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate species
Identified with Single Cell Recordings
They can explain empathy, Theory of Mind, Social Cognition and Language
105
Explain the Recapitulation Theory
The theory of recapitulation often expressed using Ernst Haeckel's phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"—is a historical hypothesis that the development of the embryo of an animal, from fertilization to gestation or hatching (ontogeny), goes through stages resembling or representing successive adult stages in the evolution of the animal's remote ancestors (phylogeny).
Since embryos also evolve in different ways, the shortcomings of the theory had been recognized by the early 20th century, and it had been relegated to "biological mythology" by the mid-20th century.
106
What is the 3 brains theory?
Reptilian – Limbic – Mammalian
107
Explain the term Hemispatial Neglect
Hemispatial neglect is a neuropsychological condition in which, after damage to one hemisphere of the brain is sustained, a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of the field of vision is observed
Neglect is most closely related to damage to the temporo-parietal junction and posterior parietal cortex
