Neuroscience Flashcards
What is neural plasticity?
The brain physically changes and develops throughout the lifespan. Experiences and genetics continually influence brain development.
What factors negatively affect neural plasticity?
Chronic stress and chronic substance abuse
What factors positively affect neural plasticity?
Psychotherapy, psychopharmacotherapy, enjoyable activities (i.e., social, intellectual), exercise, and meditation
What is synaptic pruning?
Through adolescence, the brain continually refines its efficiency by retaining relevant/useful synapses while “pruning” or eliminating non-relevant/non-useful synapses.
What is neurotransmission?
The transfer of information from one neuron to another
Where does neurotransmission occur?
Synapse or synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitters are released at the synaptic cleft as a result of ____________.
Electrical activity (action potential)
What is the first phase of an action potential?
Depolarization is an excitatory response. During this phase, sodium and calcium ions flow into the cell.
What is the second phase of an action potential?
Repolarization is an inhibitory response. During this phase, potassium leaves the cell or chloride enters the cell.
Describe the path of neurotransmission.
Stimulated by an action potential in the axon, neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron, cross the synapse, and then bind to a specific receptor on the post-synaptic neuron.
What happens to the neurotransmitters that do not bind to receptors?
Unbound neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft by reuptake pumps and reloaded into the presynaptic neuron to be recycled in a process called “reuptake.”
____________ within the neuron continue neurotransmission through chemical and electrical processes.
Second messengers
____________ maintains optimal function of the synapses.
Healthy lifestyle
What are the two classes of cells in the nervous system?
Glia and neurons
What are glia and what role do they play in the nervous system?
Structures that form the myelin sheath around axons and provide protection and support.
What are neurons and what role do they play in the nervous system?
Nerve cells responsible for conducting impulses from one part of the body to another.
What are the three components of a neuron?
Cell body/soma, dendrites, and axon
____________ receive information to conduct impulse toward the cell body.
Dendrites
____________ send or conduct information away from the cell body.
Axons
What role does the synapse play in neurotransmission?
The synapse converts an electrical signal (action potential) from the presynaptic neuron into a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) that is transferred to the post-synaptic neuron.
____________ are chemicals synthesized from dietary substrates that communicate information from one cell to another.
Neurotransmitters
What are the four categories of neurotransmitters?
Monoamines (a.k.a. “biogenic amines”)
Amino acids
Cholinergics
Neuropeptides
What are the four main monoamine neurotransmitters?
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Serotonin
What are the two main amino acid neurotransmitters?
Glutamine
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
What is the main cholinergic neurotransmitter?
Acetylcholine
What are the main neuropeptide transmitters?
Non-opioids (i.e., substance P and somatostatin)
Opioids (i.e., endorphins, enkephalins, and dynorphins
Where is dopamine produced?
Substantia nigra
Ventral tegemental area
What are the four dopamine pathways?
Mesolimbic
Nigrostriatal
Mesocortical
Tuberinfundibular pathways
What role does the mesolimbic dopamine pathway play in mental health?
The mesolimbic dopamine pathway is reward-oriented and associated with mood, disorders, psychosis, drug abuse, and positive symptoms of schizophrenia (excessive dopamine in this pathway).
What drugs affect the mesolimbic dopamine pathway?
ALL anti-psychotics (FGAs and SGAs) block dopamine receptors, specifically D2 receptors in the mesolimbic pathway, thereby preventing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
What role does the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway play in mental health?
The nigrostriatal dopamine pathway is responsible for voluntary and involuntary movements. Deficient levels of dopamine in this pathway have been implicated in Parkinson’s disease and is responsible for EPS symptoms.
What drugs affect the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway?
FGAs block the D2 receptors in the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway, which can cause extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) such as acute dystonia, acute akathisia, antipsychotic-induced parkinsonism, tardive dyskinesia (TD), tardive dystonia, and tardive akathisia.
What role does the mesocortical dopamine pathway play in mental health?
The mesocortical dopamine pathway is responsible for cognition, planning and behavior. Deficient levels of dopamine in this pathway cause the negative effects of schizophrenia.
What role does the tuberofundibular dopamine pathway play in mental health?
The tuberofundibular dopamine pathway extends to the pituitary and regulates prolactin.
What drugs affect the tuberofundibular dopamine pathway?
Medications that disrupt this pathway (i.e., risperidone) can cause elevated prolactin and galactorrhea.
What properties differentiates atypical antipsychotics from typical antipsychotics?
5H2a receptor antagonist properties (SGAs also blocks D2 receptors, but so do FGAs)
What neurotransmitter is known as the “master molecule of addiction?”
Dopamine
Where is norepinephrine produced?
Locus ceruleus of the pons
What role does norepinephrine play in mental health?
It affects attention, focus, vigilance, fight or flight response, learning, and speeds up the heart rate. It has been implicated in mood, anxiety-related disorders, and ADHD.
Psychostimulant medications used to treat ADHD (i.e., methylphenidate, amphetamines) increase levels of what neurotransmitters?
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Where is epinephrine produced?
Adrenal glands
Where is serotonin produced?
Raphe nuclei of the brainstem
What role does serotonin play in mental health?
It affects sleep, reduces aggression, and inhibits behavior. It is implicated in mood and anxiety disorders.
What neurotransmitter is known as the “calming neurotransmitter?”
Serotonin
What neurotransmitter is derived from tryptophan?
Serotonin
What neurotransmitter is a precursor of melatonin?
Serotonin
___% of serotonin receptors are found in the gut.
90%
What amino acid acts as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
Where is glutamate found?
Throughout the brain
What is the major receptor associated with glutamate?
NMDA receptors
What role does glutamate play in mental health?
It is associated with seizure disorders, bipolar disorders (possibly), mood disorders and schizophrenia.
What glutamate antagonist drug causes schizophrenia-like symptoms?
Ketamine
What amino acid acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter?
GABA
What role does GABA play in mental health?
It is implicated in anxiety disorders.
What drugs act on GABA receptors?
Benzodiazepines, alcohol, barbiturates, and other CNS depressants
____________ is a term used to describe how repeated bipolar episodes sensitize the brain to trigger more mood episodes with less extreme triggers.
Kindling
What neurotransmitter is implicated in the process of kindling?
Glutamate
What roles does histamine play in mental health?
Histamine modulates arousal, wakefulness, feeding behavior, and neuroendocrine responsiveness. It can be excitatory or inhibitory.
Where are histamine receptors found?
Widely distributed within the CNS with high levels in the thalamus, cortex, and cerebellum
What causes the sedation and weight gain associated with antipsychotics and antidepressants?
H1 receptor antagonism
Where is acetylcholine produced?
Basal nucleus of Meynert
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter in the _____________ nervous system.
Autonomic
What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
What effects does the sympathetic nervous system have when triggered?
“Fight or flight” symptoms such as increased heart rate and breathing and increased pupil size. It also causes decreased urination and gastric motility.
What effects does the parasympathetic nervous system have when triggered?
“Rest and digest” symptoms such as increased gastric motility and urination and a general slowing of vital signs.
What brain structures make up the “reptilian brain?”
Brainstem
Cerebellum
What three structures make up the brainstem?
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
What are the functions of the brainstem?
It regulates BP, respiration, arousal, and digestion and relays information to the cerebellum.
Damage to the brainstem results in what symptoms?
Impaired inhibition
Anxiety
Depression,
Personality changes
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the brainstem?
PTSD
Paralysis
Psychosis
Coma/death
What are the functions of the cerebellum?
It coordinates balance, posture, movement, memory, impulse control, cognition, and language.
Damage to the cerebellum results in what symptoms?
Ataxia
Tremors
Emotional blunting
Lack of inhibition
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the cerebellum?
Autism
ADHD
What are the functions of the amygdala?
Regulates basic, powerful emotions, fear, rage, and sexual desire
Damage to the amygdala results in what symptoms?
Irritability
Anger
Aggression
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the amygdala?
PTSD Panic disorder Depression Autism Schizophrenia
What are the functions of the hippocampus?
Involved in memory and converting short-term memory into long-term memory, and learning
Damage to the hippocampus results in what symptoms?
Impaired memory and attention
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the hippocampus?
PTSD
Alzheimer’s dementia
Major depression
What are the functions of the thalamus?
Acts as a relay station for sensory information and influences affect, mood, and body movements associated with strong emotion
Damage to the thalamus results in what symptoms?
Impairment when people are overwhelmed with information
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the thalamus?
Schizophrenia
What are the functions of the hypothalamus
Maintains homeostasis and controls basic needs (i.e., drinking, temperature regulation, sleep-wake cycle)
Damage to the hypothalamus results in what symptoms?
Disturbed sleep
Eating
Changes in body temperature
Emotional instability
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the hypothalamus?
Depression
Anorexia
Violence
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex (the “thinking brain”)?
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
What are the four subdivisions of the frontal lobe?
Motor strip
Supplemental motor area
Broca’s area
Prefrontal cortex
What are the key functions of the frontal lobe?
Executive functioning, working memory, reasoning, higher-order planning, prioritizing, sequencing, insight/judgment, decision making, impulse control, behavioral cueing, intelligence, abstraction
Expressive speech (Broca’s area)
Personality development
Controlling voluntary motor activity of specific muscles and movement of multiple muscles (premotor area)
Damage to the Broca’s area results in what condition?
Expressive aphasia (difficulty forming words/sentences)
Prefrontal cortex has what three regions?
Orbitofrontal region
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
Medial prefrontal cortex
True or false: Functional MRI studies demonstrate the orbitofrontal region, anterior cingulate and insula work together to seek and recognize human love.
True
Damage to the ______________________ region results in lack of inhibition, promiscuity, poor judgment, defects in executive functioning.
Orbital frontal region
What two brain structures are thought to work together to control emotional regulation and processing?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
Amygdala
True or false: The medial prefrontal cortex is a part of the brain’s reward system.
True
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the frontal lobe?
Frontal lobe syndrome Schizophrenia Executive dysfunction syndrome Depression Bipolar ADHD Anxiety
What are the key functions of the parietal lobe?
Primary sensory area (receiving and evaluating sensory information excluding smell, hearing, and vision)
Taste
Processing tactile and proprioceptive information
Reading and writing
Comprehension of language
Damage to the parietal lobe results in what symptoms?
Sensory-perceptual disturbances
Trouble recognizing familiar people, objects (agnosia) or surroundings
What are the key functions of the occipital lobe?
Primary visual cortex
Integrates vision with other sensory information
Damage to the occipital lobe results in what symptoms?
Visual field defects
Blindness
Color blindness
Visual hallucinations
What are the key functions of the temporal lobe?
Receptive speech or language comprehension (Wernicke’s area)
Primary auditory area
Memory
Emotion
Integration of vision with sensory information
Damage to the temporal lobe results in what symptoms?
Visual or auditory hallucinations
Receptive aphasia (inability to understand words)
Amnesia
What mental health disorders/symptoms are attributed to the temporal lobe?
Auditory hallucinations in depression, mania, and schizophrenia
What structures in the brain form the limbic system or “emotional brain?”
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
What are the functions of the dopamine pathways?
Reward (motivation) Pleasure, euphoria Motor function (fine tuning) Compulsion Perseveration
What are the functions of the serotonin pathways?
Mood
Memory processing
Sleep
Cognition
Alzheimer’s disease and impaired memory result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased acetylcholine
Parkinsonian symptoms result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Increased acetylcholine
Decreased dopamine
Schizophrenia and psychosis result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Increased dopamine
Decreased serotonin
Substance abuse results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased dopamine
Decreased opioid neuropeptides
Anhedonia results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased dopamine
Depression results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased serotonin
Decreased norepinephrine
Anxiety results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased serotonin Decreased GABA
Increased norepinephrine
OCD results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased serotonin
Bipolar affective disorder results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Increased glutamate
Psychosis from ischemic neurotoxicity or excessive pruning results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Increased glutamate
Memory and learning difficulty result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased glutamate
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Increased dopamine (in mesolimbic pathway)
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia result from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased dopamine (in mesocorticol pathway) Decreased glutamate
ADHD results from what neurotransmitter imbalance?
Decreased dopamine
Decreased norepinephrine
