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bioregulatory systems y2 > neurology and neuroscience > Flashcards

neurology and neuroscience Flashcards

1
Q

what is the cerebral cortex

A

outer layer
covers entire surface of brain
together with deep nuclei, contains grey matter (neuronal cell bodies and glial cells)
highly folded with gyri and sulci
organised into lobes

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2
Q

what is the cerebral cortex organised into microscopically

A

layers and columns

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3
Q

how many regions are identified by Brodmann in 1909 and what are they based on

A

52
based on cytoarchitecture - cell size, spacing or packing density and layers

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4
Q

what are the 2 main regions that are shown to relate to function and where are they

A

primary motor cortex (4)
separated by the central sulcus
primary somatosensory (1,2,3)

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5
Q

what is the frontal lobe responsible for (IM CALM)

A

Initiating Motor
- primary motor cortex (Execution)
- pre motor cortex (selection)
cognitive executive function (eg planning)
- pre frontal cortex
Attention
- pre frontal cortex
Language
- Brocas area (left) - speech production
memory
- pre frontal cortex

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6
Q

what is the parietal lobe responsible for (SSSS)

A

sensation - touch, pain
sensory aspects of language
spatial orientation
self perception

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7
Q

what is the occipital lobe responsible for (V)

A

processing visual info

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8
Q

what is the temporal lobe responsible for (MEAL)

A

memories - limbic association area
emotions - limbic association area
auditory - auditory cortex
language - Wernickes area (left) - speech comprehension

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9
Q

what is within the limbic lobe

A

includes the amygdala, hippocampus, mamillary body and cingulate gyrus

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10
Q

what is the limbic lobe responsible for (LeMMER)

A

Learning
motivation
memory
emotion
reward

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11
Q

where is the insular cortex

A

lies deep within lateral fissure

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12
Q

what is the insular cortex responsible for (AVIVA)

A

auditory processing
visual vestibular integration
interoception
visceral sensation
autonomic control

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13
Q

what is contained within internal structure

A

grey matter
- neuronal cell bodies and glial cells - around 85 billion each
white matter
- myelinated neuronal axons arranged in tracts
- white matter tracts connect cortical areas

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14
Q

what are the 3 types of fibres

A

association
commissural
projection

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15
Q

what are association fibres and the different types

A

connect areas within the same hemisphere so they do not cross the midline
short (U) fibres (adjacent gyri)
long fibres
superior longitudinal fasciculus - connects frontal and occipital lobes
arcuate fasciculus - connects frontal and temporal lobes
inferior longitudinal fasciculus - connects temporal and occipital lobes
uncinate fasciculus - connects anterior frontal and temporal lobes (orange one)

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16
Q

what are commissural fibres and what are the 2 types

A

connect homologous structures in left and right hemispheres
corpus callosum - superior
anterior commissure = inferior

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17
Q

what are projection fibres and what are the types

A

connect cortex with lower brain structures eg thalamus, brain stem and spinal cord
afferent - towards cortex
efferent - away from cortex
deeper to cortex radiate as the corona radiata
converge through internal capsule between thalamus and basal ganglia
eg to skeletal muscles

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18
Q

what are the differences in primary and secondary/association cortices in function/organisation and symmetry

A

primary
function predictable
organised topographically
symmetry between left and right
secondary
function less predictable
not organised topographically
left-right symmetry weak or absent

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19
Q

what are the motor areas in the frontal lobe

A

primary motor cortex
supplementary area
premotor area

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20
Q

what is the primary motor cortex responsible for and where is it located

A

controls fine, discrete, precise voluntary movements
by descending signals to execute movements
last pathway before descending signals for movement
(located inprecentral gyrus - topographically arranged)

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21
Q

what is the supplementary area responsible for

A

involved in planning movements eg externally cued
like moving an arm

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22
Q

what is the premotor area responsible for

A

internally cued movements eg speech

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23
Q

what areas are within the parietal lobe

A

primary somatosensory
somatosensory association

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24
Q

what is the primary somatosensory responsible for

A

processes somatic sensations arising from receptors in the body
post central gyrus and topographically arranged
eg fine touch, vibrations, two point discrimination, proprioception, pain and temperature
dorsal column pathway (fine touch vibration proprioception) and spinothalamic pathway (pain, temp)

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25
what is the somatosensory association responsible for
interpret significance of sensory info eg recognising an object placed in the hand awareness of self and awareness of personal space
26
what are the areas in the occipital lobe
primary visual cortex visual association
27
what is the primary visual cortex responsible for
processes visual stimuli
28
what is the visual association for
gives meaning and interpretation of visual input
29
what areas are within the temporal lobe
primary auditory audiotory association
30
what is the primary auditory responsible for
processes auditory stimuli diff freq - topographically mapped here
31
what is the auditory association responsible for
gives meaning and interpretation of auditory input
32
what are 3 other association areas
prefrontal cortex Brocas area Wernickes area
33
what is the prefrontal cortex responsible for (APPS)
attention planning and decision making (executive function) personality social behaviour
34
where and what is Brocas and Wernickes area
in the left hemisphere in front of motor regions production of speech/formulate mouth/lang = broca (L frontal lobe) Wernike’s = understanding/interpretation/meaning (L temporal lobe)
35
what happens after frontal lobe lesions
changes in personality inappropriate behaviour eg phineas gage in 1848 lack of attention inability to plan actions
36
what happens after parietal lobe lesions
eg lesion in right hemisphere contralateral neglect syndrome lack of awareness of self on left side lack of awareness of left side of extrapersonal space neglect themselves and the world contralateral to their lesion
37
what happens after temporal lobe lesions
lateral or medial leads to agnosia - inability to recognise patient HM - bilateral resection of anterior medial temporal lobe structures to cure epilepsy could not form new memories - anterograde amnesia recognition in temporal lobe - may not be able to name objects
38
what happens after Brocas area lesions
expressive aphasia - poor production of speech, comprehension intact non fluent aphasia - struggle to produce speech leading to stammer broca = broken speech (understand but cannot respond)
39
what happens after Wernickes area lesions
receptive aphasia - poor comprehension of speech, production is fine connected by arcuate fasciculus
40
what happens after primary visual cortex lesions
blindness in the corresponding part of the visual field
41
what happens after visual association lesions
deficits in interpretation of visual info eg prosopagnosia - inability to recognise familiar faces or learn new faces (face blindness)
42
how can we use PET imaging to assess cortical function
positron emission tomography (PET) blood flow directly to brain region radioactive glucose and scanned used in seeing for eg processing speech
43
how can we use fMRI to assess cortical function
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) used in research amount of blood oxygen in a brain region
44
how can we use EEG to assess cortical function
electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical signals produced by the brain compare signals of diff regions, used a lot in sleep disorders/epilepsy
45
how can we use MEG to assess cortical function
magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures magnetic signals produced by the brain more recent event related or evoked potentials are measured response is small so you need a stimulus like checkerboard = stimulation and then average many traces to see waveforms signal diff can let you see where issues are along the path eg where it is slowing
46
what are somatosensory evoked potentials
series of waves that reflect sequential activation of neural structures along the somatosensory pathways somatosensory activity, thalamic activity, mid cervical cord activity, impulses arriving at shoulder follow the pathway - sequential activation can show you where lesion is along a path used to check the integrity of the sensory pathway
47
how can we use brain stimulation to assess cortical function
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) rather than assess signals up to the brain, stimulate the brain and track it pass signal through coil to make EM field > produces EM in brain/nerves non invasive and position or shape of coil can affect which muscles investigate neural interactions controlling movement following spinal cord injury investigate whether a specific brain area = responsible for a function using field to interrupt ongoing activity showing that it was in use - can modulate overactive regions
48
what is tDCS
transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) uses low direct current over the scalp to increase or decrease neuronal firing rates becoming more common direct electrical stimulation negative electrode reduces, positive increases firing rates useful potentially for chronic pain
49
how can we use DTI to assess cortical function
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) based on diffusion of water molecules DTI with tractography 3D reconstruction to assess neural tracts can help understand connections between brain regions - insight of workings of cortical regions
50
what are some perfusion demands of the brain
10-20% cardiac output 20% of O2 consumption 66% of liver glucose vulnerable if blood supply is impaired
51
what are the 3 vessels that provide blood supply to the brain
internal carotid artery (towards the back of the head) common carotid artery vertebral artery
52
what is the structure of the arteries of the brain and make sure you can draw and label this
circle of Willis
53
what is the venous drainage process of the brain
cerebral veins ↓ venous sinuses in the dura mater ↓ internal jugular vein
54
what are the 4 types of haemorrhage
extradural subdural subarachnoid intracerebral
55
describe an extradural haemorrhage
mostly caused by trauma immediate clinical effects arterial high pressure
56
describe a subdural haemorrhage
trauma can be delayed clinical effects venous lower pressure
57
describe a subarachnoid haemorrhage
due to ruptured aneurysms blood vessel has a weakness in its wall and ruptures congenital
58
describe an intracerebral haemorrhage
spontaneous hypertensive uncontrolled chronic hypertension
59
what is right behind the pterion (soft spot on head) and supplies the dura mater
middle meningeal artery
60
what is the definition for a stroke
CVA (cerebrovascular accident) rapidly developing focal disturbance of brain function of presumed vascular origin and of >24 hours in duration
61
what are 85% of strokes caused by
thromboembolism 15% by haemorrhage
62
what is a transient ischaemic attack
rapidly developing focal disturbance of brain function of presumed vascular origin that resolves completely within 24 hours sometimes in minutes (temporary blockage)
63
what is the definition for an infarction
degenerative changes which occur in tissue following occlusion of an artery dead tissue
64
what is the definition for cerebral ischaemia
lack of sufficient blood supply to nervous tissue resulting in permanent damage if blood flow is not restored quickly
65
what is thrombosis
formation of a blood clot (thrombus)
66
what is an embolism
plugging of small vessel by material carried from larger vessel eg thrombi from the heart or atherosclerotic debris from the internal carotid
67
how can the general public recognise a stroke
FACE face arms speech time
68
what are the risk factors for stroke (CHADS)
Cardiac disease Hypertension Age Diabetes Mellitus Smoking
69
what are some anterior cerebral artery symptoms
paralysis of contralateral structures (leg > arm, face) disturbance of intellect, executive function and judgement (abulia) loss of appropriate social behaviour
70
what are some middle cerebral artery symptoms
“classic stroke” contralateral hemiplegia : arm > leg contralateral hemisensory deficits hemianopia (visual fields) aphasia (L sided lesion) perfusion is not superficial Brocas aphasia = expressive aphasia Wernickes = receptive aphasia
71
what are some posterior cerebral artery symptoms
visual deficits homonymous hemianopia (same side loss of half visual field) visual agnosia eg propagnosia
72
what is multiple sclerosis
autoimmune inflammatory disorder - results in myelin loss from neurones in the CNS (slow AP)
73
what is orthodromic
travelling in normal direction in nerve fibre
74
what is antidromic
travelling in opposite direction to that normal in nerve fibre
75
what is an M wave in peripheral nerve stimulation
an electrical stimulus of an appropriate intensity to a peripheral nerve can activate sensory and motor axons activation of motor axons can cause action potentials to travel along the nerve to cause muscle contraction - a twitch - can be recorded w electromyography (EMG) fast response = M (motor) wave
76
what is a H reflex in peripheral nerve stimulation
same stimulus can cause activation of the sensory axons (subject feels stimulus) APs can travel along nerve to spinal cord can cause lower motor neurons in spinal cord to become activated APs in motor axons can travel along motor neuron to muscle > muscle contraction (twitch) = reflex activation of muscle this later response = H reflex
77
what is an F wave in peripheral nerve stimulation
large electrical stimulus can cause activation of the motor axons to conduct antidromically APs travel along the motor nerve to the spinal cord (opposite way to normal) but meets cell body before reaching SC can cause lower motor neurons in spinal cord to become activated APs in motor axons can travel along motor neuron to muscle > cause muscle contraction (twitch) later response = called F wave (not a reflex) (does not actually reach spinal cord!!)
78
how is the total motor conduction time and the peripheral motor conduction time in patients with MS different from normal
total motor conduction time - delayed peripheral motor conduction time - normal as the problem is with the CNS not PNS
79
what is the difference between neglect and agnosia
neglect is lack of awareness of sensory info in visual field result of parietal lobe damage agnosia is when they acknowledge stimulus but cannot report what it is - temporal lobe damage
80
what happens if you have a lesion in the arcuate fasciculus
conduction aphasia
81
what are some symptoms of multiple sclerosis
optic neuritis (blurred vision) fatigue difficulty walking paraesthesia muscle stiffness spasms varies in every patient due to where myelin is lost
82
how can we confirm conduction problem in MS is related to neurones of CNS and not PNS
using peripheral nerve and brain simulation techniques

bioregulatory systems y2 (6 decks)

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