Neurology Flashcards
WHAT IS A TRANSIENT ISCHAEMIC ATTACK?
Blood flow to part of the brain TEMPORARILY stops
Lasts for less than 24 HOURS
NO lasting damage
Usually caused by emboli
What are the risk factors for TIAs?
Non-modifiable risk factors
Age
Sex
Family history
Race/ethnicity
Modifiable risk factors
Smoking
Hypertension
Diabetes
Hyperlipidemia
Activity level
What are the causes of TIAS?
Thromboembolism
From carotid
Cardioembolism
Post-MI or AF
Hyperviscosity
Polycythaemia,
What are the signs and symptoms of a TIA?
Mimic a stroke in the same vessel
What are the tests for TIAs?
Carotid Doppler
Angiography
Fundoscopy (amaurosis fugax)
Listen for carotid bruits because of atherosclerosis
Aim to find the cause and define vascular risk
FBC + prothromibin (test for bleeding/hypercoaguable conditions)
ESR
U&Es
Glucose (if low could cause altered mental state)
lipids (risk for atherosclerotic disease)
What is the treatment for TIAs?
-
Reduce risk factors
Blood pressure/diabetes/cholesterol -
Antiplatelet drugs
Clopidogrel or aspirin - Warfarin/DOAC (if cardiac emboli)
- Carotid endarterectomy (if >70% stenosis)
What is the ABCD2 scale?
What are the values?
Scale to determine risk of having a future stroke. 2/7 days
Age ≥60 yrs old 1 point
Blood pressure ≥140/90 1 point
Clinical features
Unilateral weakness 2 points
Speech disturbance without weakness 1 point
Duration of symptoms
Symptoms lasting ≥1h 2 points
Symptoms lasting 10–59min 1 point
Diabetes 1 point
What does the scores indicate in ABCD2?
More than 6 strongly predicts a stroke
More than 4 should be seen by a specialist in 24 hours
WHAT IS AMAUROSIS FUGAX?
Painless progressive loss of vision in one or two eyes
“like a curtain descending over my field of view”
What causes amaurosis fugax?
Emboli passing into the retinal artery
What are the tests for amaurosis fugax?
Ultrasound
MRI and CT
Fundoscopy
What is the treatment for amaurosis fugax?
- Atherscleoric lesion = ASPIRIN or CLOPIDOGREL
- Cartoid atherscleosis = Carotid endarterectomy
- Cadiac cause = warfarin/correct AF
WHICH IS THE MORE COMMON STROKE?
ischamemic
WHAT IS AN ISCHAEMIC STROKE?
Interupption of the blood supply to the brain
What causes ischaemic stroke?
- Thromobsis
- Embolism
- Systemic hypoperfusion
- Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
What are the signs and symptoms of a stroke?
Depends on location of the stroke
Symptoms affected the contralateral side of the brain area
Cerebral (contralateral sensory loss or hemiplegia—initially flaccid)
Brainstem (quadriplegia, dis- turbances of gaze and vision, locked-in syndrome)
Lacunar (ataxic hemiparesis, pure motor, pure sensory, sensorimotor, and dysarthria/clumsy hand)
What are the investigations for a stroke?
Clinical examination - NIHSS (national institues of health stroke scale)
-
Risk factors
Hypertension -
Cardiac cause
Echo/ECG -
Carotid
Ultrasound/bruits
CT/MRI/Angiography
What is the treatment for an ischaemic stroke?
1st line: Thrombolysis
IV alteplase
2nd line: Antiplatelets
Clopidogrel 75mg OD
Stroke therapy long term
S+L
Physio
OT
When must thombolysis be given in an ischaemic stoke and what are the contraindications?
Less than 4.5 hours
- Surgery in last 3 months
- Patient on warfarin
- Hx of active malignancy
- Platelets <100,000/mm3
WHAT IS A HEMORRHAGIC STROKE?
Rupture of a blood vessel or abnormal vascular structure
What are the different types of hemorrhagic strokes?
Intracerebral hemorrhage
Subarachnoid hemorrhage
What are the causes of haemorrhagic strokes?
- Hypertensive haemorrhage
- Ruptured aneurysm
- Ruptured AV fistula
- Drug induced bleeding
What are the signs and symptoms of a stroke?
Depends on location of the stroke
Symptoms affected the contralateral side of the brain area
- Cerebral (contralateral sensory loss or hemiplegia—initially flaccid)
- Brainstem (quadriplegia, disturbances of gaze and vision, locked-in syndrome)
- Lacunar (ataxic hemiparesis, pure motor, pure sensory, sensorimotor, and dysarthria/clumsy hand)
What are the investigations for a stroke?
Clinical examination - NIHSS (national institues of health stroke scale)
-
Risk factors
Hypertension -
Cardiac cause
Echo/ECG -
Carotid
Ultrasound/bruits
CT/MRI/Angiography
What is the treatment for a haemorrhagic stroke?
-
Control BP
B-blocker - Beriplex if warfarin-related bleed
- Clot evacuation
How do you distinguish between a haemorrhagic and ischaemic stroke?
CT head
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT INTER-CRANIAL HAEMORRHAGE?
Extradural haemorrhage
Subdural haemorrhage
Subarachnoid haemorrhage
Intracerebral haemorrhage
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF INTRACEREBRAL HAEMORRHAGE?
Lobar haemorrhage
Thalamic haemorrhage
Pontine haemorrhage
Cerebellar haemorrhage
What are the different layers of the meninges?
Dura, usually firmly adherent to the inside of the skull
Arachnoid, more adherent to the brain
Pia, on the surface of the brain and cannot be separated from the brain
Where are the meningeal vessels? What veins cross the subdural space?
Meningeal vessels are in the Extradural space
Bridging veins cross the subdural space
In which space does the circle of willis lie?
The circle of Willis lies in the subarachnoid space
Are there any blood vessels below the pia?
There are no vessels deep to the Pia, the Pia forms part of the blood brain barrier
WHAT IS A SUBARACHNOID HAEMORRHAGE?
Rupture of the arteries forming the circle of Willis
Often because of ‘Berry aneurysms’
What are the causes of subarachnoid haemorrhages?
Trauma
Berry aneurysm
Arteriovenous malformations
Idiopathic
What are the signs and symptoms of a subarchanoid haemorrhage?
What is the headache called which they call a warning sign of a leaky vessel?
Symptoms
Sudden onset severe headache (‘Thunderclap headache’)
Photophobia
Reduced consciousness
Vomiting
Collapse
Seizures
Sign
Kernig’s sign
Terson syndrome (retinal, subhyaloid and vitreous bleeds)
3rd oculomotor palsy (posterior communicating artery)
Sentinel headache
What are the investigations for a subarchanoid haemorrhage?
CT
Spider sign
LP
CSF bloody early
Becomes xanthochromic (yellow), breakdown of haem to bilibrubin
Angio
To determine location
What is the treatment for subarchanoid haemorrhage?
Neurosurgery!!!!
Keep blood pressure low
Keep hydrated and nutrition
Nimodipine (recued vasospasm)
If anneurysm deteced either coil or clipping.
WHAT IS A SUBDURAL HAEMORRHAGE?
Bleeding between the dura on the skull and the arachnoid layer
What is the cause of subdural haemorrhages?
Where is the bleeding from? Who is it most common in?
Trauma
Bleeding from bridging veins
Commonest where the patient has a small brain (alcoholics, dementia)
Occurs in ‘shaken babies’
GRADUAL
Gradual rise in ICP over many weeks
What are the symptoms of a subdural haemorrhage?
Fluctuating level of consciousness
Slow physical or intellectual slowing
Sleepiness
Headache
Personality change, and unsteadiness.
Neurological symptoms happen later
What investigations can you do for a subdural haemorrhage?
CT/MRI shows clot ± midline shift
Look for crescent-shaped collection of blood over 1 hemisphere.
What is the treatment for a subdural haemorrhage?
- Evacuation 1st-line
- Craniotomy is 2nd-line
Where does bleeding occur in subdural haemorrhage?
Between arachnoid and dura
WHAT IS AN EXTRADURAL HAEMORRHAGE?
Bleed between skull and dura membrane
How is an extradural haemorrhage caused? What artery bleeds in extradural?
Traumatic
Fractured skull
Bleeding from Middle Meningeal Artery and vein
Also dural venous sinus
What normally happens to the pressure during an extradural bleed?
What period is seen?
Rapid rise in inter-cranial pressure (ICP)
Conscious level falls or is slow to improve
Lucid period
Coning and death if not treated
What symptoms does an extradural haemorrhage show?
Increasingly severe headache
Vomiting
Confusion, and fits follow
Brainstem compression later on
What investigations for an extradural haemorrhage can you do?
CT
Haematoma
Often biconvex/lens-shaped
X-ray
Fractures
How can you treat a extradural haemorrhage?
Clot evacuation ± ligation of the bleeding vessel.
Care of the airway in an unconscious patient
What is the difference in CT shape for extradural and subdural haemorrhage?
Biconvex/lens-shaped in extradural
the blood forms a more rounded shape
Compared with the sickle-shaped
Subdural haematoma as the tough dural attachments to the skull keep it more localized
WHAT IS EPILEPSY?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L0XqL2I35n8
Seizure diorder
Recurrent and unpredictable seizures
What is the definition of an epileptic seizure?
Paroxysmal event
Caused by excessive, hypersynchronous neuronal discharges
Behaviour, sensation or cognitive processes change
What is the treatment of focal epilepsy?
How do they work?
Carbamazepine (inhibits Na+ channels)
Lamotrigine (inhibits glutamate release)
What is the first line of therapy for generalised epilepsy?
Sodium Valproate
Lamotrigine
What is the main excitatory transmittor in the brain? What is the receptor for it?
Glutamate
NMDA
What are the patinet only signs of a seizure?
Fear
Certain smells
What is the main inhibitory transmittor in the brain? What is the receptor?
GABA
GABA receptors
What are the outward signs of a seizure?
Jerking
Moving
Losing consciousness
What is it called when a seizure starts focal and becomes generalised?
Focal onset bilateral tonic-clonic
What is it called when both hemispheres of the brain are affected?
Generalised
Can start as focal and become generalised
What is a jacksonian march?
Which lobe is this most common in?
When jerky movements affect one area then move to other areas
Most common in frontal lobe
What are the focal seizures divided into?
_Simple partial
Without impaired awareness_
Small area
Strange sensation - hearing or tasting
Jerky movements
Awake and alert
_Complex partial
With impaired awareness_
Loss of awareness
May not remember
What is it called when the effect of a seizure is limited to one hemisphere or single lobe
Focal or partial seizure
What is the treatment of a staticus epilepticus?
Open + maintain airway
Community - Diazepam
Hospital - Lorazepam
Give phenytoin if seizures continue
What is a seizure called if it lasts longer than 5 minutes ongoing or without returning to normal?
What type of seizure is it normally?
Status epilepticus
Usually tonic-clonic
MEDICAL EMERGENCY
What are generalised seizures divided into?
Tonic
Muscles stiff and flexed
Fall backward
Atonic
Suddenly relaxed muscles
Fall forward
Clonic
Violent muscle contractions
Convulsions
Tonic-Clonic
Myoclonic
Short muscle twitches
Absence
Spaced out, unresponsive
What are the different parts of seizure?
Prodrome
Aura
Ictal symptoms
Post-ictal symptoms
Prodrome= mood/behaviour change
Aura = part of seizure patient is aware of
Ictal symptoms = dependent on part of brain affected
Post-ictal symptoms = headache, confusion, amnesia, etc.
Where do complex partial seizures always start?
Temporal lobe
WHAT IS PARKINSON’S?
Movement disorder where the dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain die
What is the cause of parkinson’s?
Usually no known cause
Sometimes
Genetic with environment
What are the direct and indirect pathways?
Control movement
Direct = movement
Indirect = no movement
Direct
Striatum
Global pallidus interna
Substantia nigra pars reticularis
Thalamus
Indirect
Striatum
Global pallidus externa
Subthalamic nucleus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcIWYCkKwVA
What happens in parkinson’s to the substantia nigra?
What do the remaining neurons contain?
Blackened areas gradually disappear
These form
Lewy bodies containing alpha-synuclein protein
Present in the dopamine neurons before they die
What are the signs and symptoms of parkinsons?
Resting tremor (Pill roll)
Rigidity (cog-wheel)
Bradykinesia
Postural instability
Also non motor symptoms (dementia)
NO WEAKNESS
What are the investigations for parkinsons?
Medical history and examination
Give levodopa and improvement in symptoms helps with diagnosis
MRI and CT to rule out other causes
What is the management for Parkinson’s?
Increase dopamine
Co-careldopa
L-DOPA (levodopa) + carbidopa
Dopamine receptor agonists
Ropinirole
Decrease dopamine breakdown
MAO-B inhibitor
Selegiline
COMT inhibitor
Entacapone
Motor symptom treatment
Amantadine and anticholingergics
Surgery
Deep brain stimulation
How does levodopa work?
Levodopa crosses blood brain barrier
Converted to dopamine
By dopa decarboxylase
Within nigrostriatal neurons
What does the no weakness of parkinson’s tell you?
Not a disease of motor cortex or corticospinal pathway diseases
What does the resting tremor of parkinson’s tell you?
Not a cerebellar disase
As would be action or intention tremor
WHAT IS HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE?
Cell loss within a specific set of neurons in the basal ganglia and cortex
What is the cause of huntingtons disease?
What does it cause the death of and where?
- Autosomal dominant
- CAG repeated sequece of DNA
- Abnormal protein produced
- Death of GABA (inhibitory) neurons particularly
- Striatum
What gene is involved with what is the code?
How many is need for huntingtons disease?
Huntingtin gene
Contains triplet repeat CAG
Normal person has 10-35
HD has >36
What is anticipation?
What does more repeats mean?
When is anticipation more likely?
CAG repeats increase with generations.
More repeats means an earlier onset.
Anticipation more likely if parent affected is the father.
What are the symptoms of huntingtons disease?
When is the normal onset?
Chorea
Psychiatric/behavioural changes
Cognitive decline and dementia
30-50
What are the investigations forhuntingtons disease?
History
Confirm chorea
Imaging
Bicaudate diameter
Exclude differentials
Genetic testing
Histology
Identify huntington
How can you treat huntingtons disease?
Chorea
Tetrabenazine
Agression
Risperidone
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEADACHES?
And give some examples for each?
Primary
Tension, cluster, migraine, sins
Secondary
Meningitis, encephalitis, GCA, medication overuse, venous thrombosis, tumour, SAH
Other
Trigeminal neuralgia
What are secondary headaches?
Red flag headaches
WHAT IS A MIGRAINE?
Recurrent headache associated
Visual & GI disturbance
What is the location of a migraine?
Unilateral
What are the features of a migraine?
How long does it last?
Gradual onset
Crescendo pattern
Moderate-severe intensity
Duration 4-72 hours
What are migraine’s associated symptoms?
Nausea
Vomiting
Photophobia
Phonophobia
Aura - feeling something about to happen
What is the treatment for migraines?
Acute and prophylaxis?
Acute
Oraltriptan e.g. Sumatriptan
+ NSAID e.g. Ketoprofen
Prophylaxis
B-blocker e.g. Propanolol
What are the triggers of migraines?
Chocolate
Hangobers
Orgasms
Cheese
Oral contraceptives
Lie-ins
Alcohol
Travel
Exercise
WHAT IS A TENSION HEADACHE?
More muscular
Most common reason why over the counter analgesics are bought
What is the location of a tension headache?
Bilateral eyebrow region
What is the character of tension headaches?
Pressure or tightness which waxes and wanes
Duration is variable
What are the associated symptoms which a tension headache?
None
WHAT ARE CLUSTER HEADACHES?
Hyperactivity to 5HT