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Human Body > Neurology > Flashcards

Neurology Flashcards

1
Q

Directional Terminology

A

Efferent:
- Output, usually CNS to PNS

Afferent:
- Input, usually PNS to CNS.

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2
Q

Grey and White Matter

A

Grey Matter:
- Contains more neuronal cell bodies.

White Matter:
- Contains more axons.

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3
Q

Brain

A

Further divided:
- Brainstem located at the base
- Cerebellum arising off brainstem
- Diencephalon
- Cerebrum sitting atop diencephalon
- Basal ganglia deep in cerebrum

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4
Q

Brainstem

A

Functions:
- origin of most cranial nerves
- eye movements
- vital functions
- passage for long tracts

3 sections:
- Medulla ~ most caudal
- Pons ~ middle section
- Mesencephalon/midbrain ~ most rostral

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5
Q

Cerebellum

A

Motor Functions:
- coordination of movements
- rhythm
- timing
- error correction

Attaches to back of brainstem.

Has peduncles that connect it to brainstem.

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6
Q

Diencephalon

A

Contains:
- Thalamus ~ relays information to the cortex.
- Hypothalamus and pituitary - parts of limbic system, hormone regulation and homeostasis.

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7
Q

Basal Ganglia

A
  • Located deep in the cerebrum
  • Modulates activity of the cerebral cortex by regulating thalamus (allows or inhibits excitation:

Involved in:
- Motor function
- Learning
- Emotional processing

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8
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  • Layers of grey matter that covers the outside of cerebrum.
  • Inside the grey matter is the white matter.
  • Has ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

4 Main Lobes:
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal

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9
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Position:
- Divided from the temporal lobe by the large Sylvian Fissure.
- Part of the cortex in front (rostral) to the central sulcus.

Functions:
- Motor
- Decision making
- Motivation
- Social decisions

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10
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Position:
- Part of cortex in behind (caudal) to the central sulcus.
- Divided from temporal and occipital lobes the the large Sylvian Fissure and arbitrary boundaries.

Functions:
- Somatosensory (body sensation)
- Integration of sensation
- Spatial awareness
- Reading, speech comprehension

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11
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Position:
- Posterior (caudal) section of cortex
- Divided from the temporal and parietal lobes by arbitrary boundaries.

Function:
- Vision

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12
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Position:
- Divided from the frontal, parietal and occipital lobes by the large Sylvian Fissure and arbitrary boundaries.

Functions:
- Hearing
- Speech comprehension
- Emotion
- Memory

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13
Q

Insula

A

Position:
- Deep under the temporal and frontal lobes.

Functions:
- Taste
- Interoception (Sense of physiological condition of the body)
- Empathy
- Somatic sensation and pain
- Vestibular function
- Attention and salience

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14
Q

Hypothalamus - Anterior

A

Parasympathetic:
- Rest and relax
- Slowing of heart
- Constriction of pupil
- Salivation
- Intestinal Peristalsis

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15
Q

Hypothalamus - Posterior

A

Sympathetic:
- Fight or flight
- Increased heart rate
- Increased blood pressure
- Pupillary dilation
- Intestinal Stasis

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16
Q

Thalamus

A
  • Relay centre of the brain
  • It has high level of connectivity to many regions of the brain.
    • Relay station for cortical input.
    • Regulation of cortical function
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17
Q

Internal Capsule

A
  • Axons from the cortex need a route to travel from their origins to their destinations.
  • Route is provided by the internal capsule, a compact bundle of fibres in the cleft between the lenticular nucleus and the thalamus and head of the caudate.
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18
Q

Neurones

A
  • Purpose is to receive and send signals
  • It receive a signal from other neurones and receptors.
  • If certain conditions are met, it will send the signal to other neurone or target cells.
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19
Q

Neurone structure

A

Dendrites:
- Processed on the cell that receive connections from other neurones.

Cell Body (soma):
- Where the nucleus and most organelles of the cell are located.

Axon:
- A specialised structure to conduct the signal to its target.

Synapse:
- The end of the axon that passes the signal to another cell.

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20
Q

Neurone Signalling

A
  • Receives an input onto the dendrites, cell body or axon.
  • If conditions are met there is an action potential.
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21
Q

Anatomy of the Chemical Synapses

A

Axon Terminal:
- Presynaptic membrane on axon terminal.

Synaptic cleft:
- The space between

Post Synaptic Membrane:
- The destination cell

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22
Q

Function of the Chemical Synapse

A
  • Presynaptic membrane on axon terminal releases a neurotransmitter
  • Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft
    -Binds to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane
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23
Q

Function of the Chemical Synapse - Neurotransmitters

A
  • Released from the pre-synaptic neurone
  • Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory
  • Will act to increase or decrease activity in the post-synaptic cell
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24
Q

The Neuronal Membrane

A
  • Keeps things inside/outside of the cell
  • Allow certain things to move in and out
  • Keeps an electrical “charge” on the neurone.
    • Inside of neurone is more negative electrically than the fluid around the neurone.
    • Separating the concentration of ions across the membrane
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25
Q

The Neuronal Membrane Charge

A
  • The inside of the cell contains more potassium (K+) and protein (-).
  • The outside fluid contains more sodium (Na+) and chloride (CI-)
  • More Na+ is pumped out then K+ is pumped in.
  • Results in a negative charge inside the cell (-70mv)
26
Q

Action Potential

A
  • Signal that travels down the axon causing the release of neurotransmitters.
  • Is an electrical wave that moves down the axon.
  • Produced by allowing Na+ to enter neurone and K+ to leave (depolarisation)
  • Triggers the release of a neurotransmitter.
27
Q

Triggering Action Potential

A
  • When a neurone receives an excitatory signal, it becomes more positive in its charge.
  • Inhibitory signals make it more negative.
  • If membrane potential of the neurone reaches -55mV an action potential is triggered.
28
Q

Action Potential Phases

A
  • Membrane potential hits -55mV
  • Voltage gated Na+ channels open
    • Na+ ruches into the cell
    • Membrane is depolarised
    • Membrane potential reaches +40mV
    • Voltage gates Na+ channels close
  • At 30mV voltage gates K+ channels open
    • K+ rush in to restore membrane charge
    • Repolarisation
  • Pushes into hyper-polarisation
    • K+ equilibrium closer to -90mV
  • Neurone can’t be fired during this “refractory period”
29
Q

Myelin Sheath

A
  • Insulating layer around axon
  • Not all neurone have myelin
  • Increase speed of the wave of depolarisation down the axon membrane towards axon terminal.
30
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A
  • Gaps between myelin wrapped around the axon
  • Allows an electrical impulse to “skip” from node to node down the full length of axon.
31
Q

Neurotransmitters

A
  • For the most part, the nervous system uses neurotransmitters to signal between cells.
  • These chemicals have effects on the cells they are released onto.
  • Will either excite or inhibit a neurone.
  • Effect depends on the neurotransmitter and the receptor it binds to.
32
Q

Membranes and Channels

A
  • Neurones have cell membranes that are electrically active (excitable)
  • Membrane has channels or pores in it
  • Ions can pass through these channels is open.
  • Change the charge on the membrane
33
Q

Energy Dependent Channels

A
  • Some channels depend on energy to move ions through them
  • Sodium/potassium pumps are an example (3 Na out of cell, 2 K in)
34
Q

Charge Dependent Channels

A
  • Allows certain charged ions through
  • The sides of channel may have a positive charge so will repel positive ions but attract negative.
  • Electrochemical exclusion
35
Q

Charge Dependent Channels

A
  • Allows certain charged ions through
  • The sides of channel may have a positive charge so will repel positive ions but attract negative.
  • Electrochemical exclusion
36
Q

Size Dependent Channels

A
  • Some channels will only allow ions of a certain size through.
  • Diameter of channel may match the diameter of the ion.
37
Q

Ligand Gated Channels

A
  • Only open for certain events.
  • Ligand gated channels only open when a certain molecule binds to part of the channel.
  • Ionotropic receptors
38
Q

Mechanically Gated Channels

A
  • Will open with distortion of the cell membrane.
  • Common with touch receptors
39
Q

Voltage Gated Channels

A
  • Will open with changes in the electrical charge on the membrane.
  • Na+ channels may open when membrane hits -55mV
  • Na+ channels may close when RMP reaches +40mV
40
Q

Leakage Channels

A
  • Randomly open and close
  • Due to an intrinsic switching
  • “Leaking ions”
41
Q

Chemical Synapse

A
  • Neurone transmitters are stored in the terminus of the axon.
  • Held in vesicles
  • Neurotransmitters may be made in the cell body or axon terminal.
42
Q

Neurotransmitter Release

A
  • Action potential reaches end of axon.
  • Ca channels open
  • Ca rushes into axon terminal
  • Some vesicles fuse with Presynaptic membrane
  • Neurotransmitter released into the synapse
43
Q

Neurotransmitter action

A
  • Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft
  • Binds to receptors in the post-synaptic membrane
  • Acts to increase or decrease activity in the post-synaptic cell
44
Q

Neurotransmitter Breakdown

A
  • After release neurotransmitter will be either absorbed by neurones or the surrounding glial cells.
  • Or broken down by enzymes
  • Or diffuses away from synapse
  • Prevents a build up of too much neurotransmitter
45
Q

Types of Neurotransmitters

A

Divided into:
- Amino Acids
- Peptides
- Monoamines
- “Others”

46
Q

Amino Acid Neurotransmitters

A

Include:
- Glutamate
• Most common excitatory neurotransmitters
- GABA
• most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
- Glycine
• most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord

47
Q

Peptide Neurotransmitters

A
  • Chemical chains or polymers of amino acids
  • Larger molecules
  • Include the opioids like endorphins
    • Pain modulation
48
Q

Other Neurotransmitters

A
  • A mixed group
  • Includes acetylcholine
    • Used by 75% of autonomic neurones
    • Alpha motor neurones onto skeletal muscles
    • Important for memory and brain activation
49
Q

Monoamine Neurotransmitter

A
  • Sometimes called biogenic amines
  • Organic molecules with an amino group bound to an organic acid.
  • Include
    • Serotonin
    • Histamine
    • The catecholamines (Dopamine, adrenaline and nor adrenaline)
  • Involved with things like the activation of the brain, emotion, consciousness and attention
50
Q

Arterial Supply to the brain

A
  • Supplied by the internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
  • Vertebral arteries supply the brainstem, underside of the cerebrum, occipital cortex.
  • Internal carotid supplies the remainder of the cerebrum and retinas
51
Q

Basilar Artery

A
  • Single artery
  • Formed from the two vertebral arteries coming together.
  • Runs up front of the brainstem
  • Gives rise to:
    • Arteries supplying the brainstem and cerebellum
52
Q

Circle of Willis

A
  • Formed by the joining of the anterior and posterior cerebral arteries.
  • Arteries arising from here supply most of the brain
53
Q

Ventricle and Cerebrospinal Fluid

A
  • Brain consists of a series of ventricles
    • Create and transport CSF
  • Connected by a series of aqueducts or canals
  • CSF:
    • Provides nourishment, waste removal, and protection to the brain.
54
Q

Meninges

A
  • CNS is covered by 3 layers of meninges
  • Protects the brain
  • Structural support
  • Helps with circulation of CSF
  • Seal it from the rest of the body:
    • Dura mater (outer)
    • Arachnoid mater (middle)
    • Pia mater (inner)
55
Q

Brainstem Functions

A
  • Original of most cranial nerves
  • Eye movements
  • Vital Functions
  • Passage for long tracts
56
Q

Spinal Cord

A
  • Part of CNS below the foremen magnum
  • Ends at L1/2
  • Cervical has 8 spinal nerve segments (C1-C8)
  • 12 thoracic (T1-T12)
  • 5 lumbar (L1-L5)
  • 5 Sacral ( S1-S5)
  • 1 Coccygeal segment
57
Q

Spinal Cord Matter

A
  • Inner core has grey and white matter
  • Grey is inner butterfly shape (cell bodies)
  • White matter surrounds and contains tracts.
  • Posterior horn deals with sensory afferents
  • Anterior Horn contains motor neurones mostly inner sting the musculature
58
Q

Long Tracts

A
  • Axons passing from the brain to the spinal cord, and vice versa.
  • Main tracts:
    • Corticobulbar - motor innervation to cranial nerves
    • Corticospinal - Voluntary motor functions
    • Medial lemniscus - transports messages for light touch and vibration from body
    • Anterolateral system - carries messaged of pain and temperature from body
59
Q

Spinal Nerves

A
  • Ventral (anterior) root and dorsal (posterior) root.
  • Combine to form a spinal nerve
  • Ventral root has motor fibres (axons)
  • Dorsal contains sensory fibres
  • C1-7 exit above their respective vertebrae
  • C8 exits below C7 vertebrae
  • T1 and below exit below their respective vertebrae
60
Q

Cervical Plexus

A
  • Forma from the nerve roots C1-C5
  • Supplies many neck muscles
  • Sensations over:
    • Back of head
    • Neck
    • Supraclavicular
  • Gives rise to the premix nerve which innervates diaphragm
61
Q

Brachial Plexus

A
  • Arises from C1-T1
  • Gives rise to nerves supplying the upper limb:
    • Median
    • Ulnar
    • Radial etc
  • Often involved in thoracic outlet syndromes and injury/trauma
62
Q

Lumbosacral Plexus

A
  • Arises from L1-S5
  • Gives rise to the nerves supplying the lower limb
  • Often involved in clinical presentations in chiropractic practice

Human Body (5 decks)

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