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Human Body > Exam > Flashcards

Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A
  • Part of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord (CNS)
  • Some parts are incorporated into other systems.

Main Parts:
- Ganglia
- Nerves

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2
Q

Ganglia

A
  • Collection of neuronal cell bodies located outside of the CNS.
  • In PNS a ganglion will present as an enlargement of the nerve.

Categorised as:
- Sensory
- Autonomic

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3
Q

Sensory Ganglia

A
  • Each dorsal root of the spinal cord has a dorsal root ganglia.
  • Contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurones entering the spinal cord.
  • Cranial nerves with sensory fibres have ganglia.
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4
Q

Location of SNS ganglia and PNS ganglia

A
  • Sympathetic ganglia are located close to the spine:
    • Paravertebral
    • Prevertebral
  • Parasympathetic ganglia are close to the end organ
    • Terminal ganglia
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5
Q

Nerves

A
  • Bundle of axons in the PNS
  • Unlike the tracts in the CNS they contain other structures
  • Connective tissue layers
  • Blood vessels
  • Nervi Nervorum
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6
Q

Nerve layers of connective tissue

A

Epineurium:
- Contains the major blood vessels

Perineurium:
- Contains bundles of axons known as fascicles
- Usually many fascicles per nerve

Endoneurium:
- Connective tissue surrounding axons

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7
Q

Peripheral Nerves

A
  • Spinal nerves formed by union of anterior (motor) and posterior (sensory) nerve roots as they exit the spine.
  • The nerves split to posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) rami
  • Cranial nerves are also peripheral nerves
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8
Q

What do spinal nerves supply?

A
  • Somatic efferent fibres to the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs.
  • Somatic afferent fibres to the skin, muscles and joints
  • Visceral efferent autonomic fibres and some visceral afferent fire
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9
Q

Cranial Nerves

A
  • A Cranial Nerve is a nerve arising from the brain.
  • 12 in total
  • Oh, Oh, Oh, They Touched And Fondled Very Greasy Vaginas, Ah Heaven
  • Olfactory (I)
  • Optic (II)
  • Oculomotor (III)
  • Trochlear (IV)
  • Trigeminal (V)
  • Abducens (VI)
  • Facial (VII)
  • Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
  • Glossopharyngeal (IX)
  • Vagus (X)
  • Accessory (XI)
  • Hypoglossal (XII)
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10
Q

Wich cranial Nerves have Sensory and/or Motor Fibres

A

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More

S=Sensory, M=Motor, B=Both

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10
Q

Sensory and Motor types

A

Sensory types can be:
- Somatic sensory – sensation from the body like the spinal nerves (CN V, VII, IX, X)
- Special sensory – senses like vision, hearing, balance and taste (CN I, II, VIII)
- Visceral sensory – sensation from the internal organs (CN VII, IX, X)

Motor types can be:
- Somatic motor - to regular skeletal muscle (CN III, IV, V, XII)
- Branchial arch motor – skeletal muscle that arises from the branchial arches (CN V, VII, IX, X, XI)
- Visceromotor – parasympathetic supply to much of the body (CN III, VII, IX, X)

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11
Q

Cranial Nerve I

A
  • Olfactory Nerve
  • Function =smell
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12
Q

Crain Nerve II

A
  • Optic Nerve
  • Function = vision
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13
Q

Cranial Nerve III

A
  • Oculomotor Nerve

Innervates:
- 4 eye muscles – eye movement
- Levator palpebrae superioris (elevates the eyelid)
- Pupil constrictors

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14
Q

Cranial Nerve IV

A
  • Trochlear Nerve

Innervates:
- 1 eye muscle - superior oblique

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15
Q

Cranial nerve V

A
  • Trigeminal Nerve

Innervates:
- Sensation to face and meninges
- Muscles of mastification

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16
Q

Cranial Nerve VI

A
  • Abducens Nerve

Innervates:
- 1 eye muscles - Lateral Rectus

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17
Q

Cranial Nerve VII

A
  • Facial nerve

Innervates:
- Muscles of facial expression
- Taste of the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
- Sensation to a small portion of skin in the ear.
- Lacrimal gland, nasal mucosa, submandibular and sublingual salivary glands

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18
Q

Cranial Nerve VIII

A
  • Vestibulocochlear nerve

Innervates:
- Cochlear apparatus of the inner ear (hearing)
- Vestibular apparatus of the inner ear (balance)

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19
Q

Cranial Nerve IX

A
  • Glossopharyngeal Nerve

Innervates:
- Taste to remainder of tongue(That not
supplied by CN VII)
- Sensation to the pharynx, middle ear and
some of outer ear
- Some pharyngeal muscles
- Parasympathetic supply to parotid gland
- Chemoreceptors and baroreceptors of
carotid body

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20
Q

Cranial Nerve X

A
  • Vagus Nerve

Inneravtes:
- Taste to remainder of oral cavity (That not
supplied by CN VII & IX)
- Sensation to some of outer ear, pharynx and
posterior fossa meninges
- Laryngeal and most pharyngeal muscles
- Parasympathetic supply to most internal
organs
- Chemoreceptors and baroreceptors of aortic
arch

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21
Q

Cranial Nerve XI

A
  • Accessory Nerve

Innervates:
- Cranial portion: some pharyngeal muscles
- Spinal portion: Upper trapezius and
sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscles

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22
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Motor output to many automatic and visceral functions:
- Digestion
- Sweating
- HR and Rhythm

2 Division:
- Parasympathetic
- Sympathetic

2 Step Innervation
- Pre-ganglionic fibres
- Post-ganglionic fibres

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23
Q

Sympathetic System Control and Balance

A

Central Control:
- regulated by higher brain centres (hypothalamus and brain stem)

Balance with PS:
- Works in opposition with PS to maintain homeostasis

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24
Q

Sympathetic System Ganglionic Fibres

A

Pre-ganglionic Fibres (Myelinated Fibres)
- Arise from the intermediolateral cell column of T1 to L2/3 levels of spinal cord
- Travel to paravertebral ganglia to synapse on the post-ganglionic fibres

Post-ganglionic Fibres (Unmyelinated):
- Travel to end organ

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25
Q

Sympathetic System Neurotransmitters

A

Pre-ganglionic fibres use:
- Acetylcholine

Post-ganglionic fibres use:
- Adrenaline

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26
Q

Sympathetic System - Actions

A

Fight or Flight:
- Increase HR
- Constrict BV to increase BP
- Dilate pupils to allow more light to retina
- Relax airway muscles to increase O2 intake
- Slow digestion and repair functions
- Release sugar to blood
- Sweating and piloerection
- Reduce bladder contraction
- Depress immune system function

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27
Q

Enteric Nervous System

A
  • Embedded within the walls of GI tract from esophagus to rectum
  • “Second Brain”

Complex network of neurons organised into two main plexuses:
- Myentric Plexus (Auerbachs):
* Located between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers, primarily controlling motility
- Submucosal Plexus (Meissners Plexus):
* Located in submucosa, regulating BD, secretions and absorptions

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28
Q

Enteric Nervous System Neurotransmitters

A

Diverse Range:
- Acetylcholine
- Serotonin
- Dopamine
- Nitric Oxide
- Others

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29
Q

Enteric Nervous System Neurotransmitters

A

Diverse Range:
- Acetylcholine
- Serotonin
- Dopamine
- Nitric Oxide
- Others

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30
Q

Enteric Nervous Systems Bidirectional Communication and Microbiome Interactions:

A

Bidirectional Communication:
- Interacts with CNS via the Vagus nerve (CNX) and sympathetic fibres, but can also operate independently.

Microbiome Interactions:
- Influences and is influenced by the gut microbiota.

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31
Q

Enteric Nervous System - Actions

A

“Brain of the Gut”: Aspects of GI functions

Motility:
- Perstalsis (propulsion of food)
- Segmentation (mixing of food)
- Sphincter Control

Secretion:
- Digestion enzymes
- Mucus
- Hormones

  • Regulation of local BF to the gut.
  • Modulation of gut-associated lymphoid tissue
    (GALT) and immune responses.
  • Detects changes in gut contents
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32
Q

Parasympathetic System Cranial Nerves and Sacral Segments

A
  • Arises from cranial nerves and S2-4 sacral segments.

Cranial Nerves:
- CN III = Pupil constriction
- CN VII = Lacrimation and Salivation
- CN IX = Salivation
- CN X = HR and Digestion

Sacral Segments:
- Bladder contraction
- Lower bowel peristalsis
- Penile erection/vaginal lubrication

33
Q

Parasympathetic System Ganglia

A
  • Closer to end organ (pre are longer)
  • Pre-ganglionic fibres use acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter.
  • Post-ganglionic fibres also use acetylcholine.
34
Q

Cranial Nerve XII

A
  • Hypoglossal Nerve
  • Muscles of the tongue
35
Q

Parasympathetic System Actions

A
  • Rest and Digest
  • Decrease HR
  • Dilate visceral BV to increase blood perfusion
  • Constrict pupils
  • Increase digestion and repair functions
  • Increase bladder contraction
  • Increase immune system function
36
Q

Somatic Vs. Motor Efferents

A
  • Somatic primarily acts on skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.
  • Autonomics act on the smooth and cardiac muscle and under involuntary.

Somatic:
- Single Neuron Pathway: An alpha motor
neurone in the ventral horn projects directly
to the muscle
- Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
- Target: Skeletal muscle fibres
- Effect: Muscle contraction (excitation only)
- Control: Voluntary (conscious)
- Functions: Body movement, posture,
respiration, speech.

Autonomic:
- 2-step process:
* Preganglionic fibre projects from the CNS
* Post-ganglionic fibre projects to the target
organ
- Neurotransmitters:
* Preganglionic: Acetylcholine
* Postganglionic:
^ Sympathetic: Norepinephrine (mainly),
Acetylcholine (in sweat glands and some
blood vessels)
^ Parasympathetic: Acetylcholine
- Targets: Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
glands
- Effects: Excitation or inhibition, depending on
the receptor type and organ.
- Control: Involuntary (unconscious)
- Functions: Regulates heart rate, blood
pressure, digestion, respiration, body
temperature, and other visceral functions.

37
Q

Reflex

A
  • Automatic response to a given stimulus
  • Determines the integrity of neural pathways

Components of a reflex:
- Afferent limb with receptor and its neurone
- Variable processing step, not always present
- Efferent limb including a neurone and a connection to an effector

38
Q

Speed of Reflexes

A

Several factors will impact upon the speed of a reflex:
- Myelination of fibres
- Number of synapses
- Length of axons

39
Q

Muscle Stretch Reflexes

A
  • Used to test the integrity of the peripheral nerve and nerve root supplying the reflex
  • Very fast, monosynaptic reflex

Components:
- Muscle spindles in the muscle being tested (detect stretch in the muscle)
- Ia afferent neurone that connects to the spindle to the spinal cord.
- Alpha motor neurone synapses onto the muscle causing excitation.

40
Q

Crossed Cord Reflexes

A
  • In addition to Ia afferent fibres exciting the alpha motor neurones for their own muscle, interneurons modulate other motor neurones.
  • E.g. Activation of the right biceps will cause inhibition of the right triceps.
    • The antagonist is inhibited (right triceps)
    • The contralateral antagonist is facilitated
      (left triceps)
    • The contralateral agonist is inhibited (left
      bicep)
41
Q

Pupillary Light Reflexes

A
  • Pupils of eyes will constrict or dilate
  • Shining a light in one eye will cause both pupils to constrict.
  • Involves optic nerve, interneurons in the mesencephalon and CN III
    • Polysynaptic Reflex
42
Q

Postural Reflexes

A
  • Allows us to maintain an upright posture.
  • Must be able to detect when your deviating
    • Receptors needed
  • System must determine an appropriate response
    • CNS must process
  • System must execute the response
    • Effective motor systems needed
43
Q

Postural Reflexes Receptors

A
  • Proprioceptors in the muscles and joints
  • Cutaneous receptors in the skin
  • Vestibular receptors in the ear
  • Visual receptors in the retina of the eye
  • Auditory receptors in the ear
44
Q

Postural Reflexes Categories

A

-Short latency reflexes:
- Rapid response (20-45ms)
- Spinal cord pathways (inc. monosynaptic muscle stretch and polysynaptic cross cord)
* E.g. leaning forward will stretch gastrocnemius, causing contraction to counteract the lean)

Long latency reflexes:
- Integrated responses (50-100ms)
- Take into account more aspects of posture and the goal of behaviour.
- Brainstem pathways (inc. vestibular, visual and proprioceptive system)

(latency is the time between the stimulus and the response)

45
Q

Autonomic reflexes

A
  • Pupillary light reflex
    • Parasympathetic fibres constrict
    • Sympathetic dilate
  • Vomiting
  • Shivering for body temp
  • BP and HR to prevent fainting
46
Q

Emetic Reflex (Vomiting)

A
  • Ingestion of toxic or irritant substances will trigger receptors in the gut.
  • Brainstem centres process this input
  • Fire pathways to cause reverse peristalis in the gut
47
Q

Senses

A
  • Allow us to receive information about our environment and convey that information to our CNS
48
Q

Free Nerve Endings

A
  • The end of the nerve is the sensory receptor.
  • Membrane may contain receptor proteins that respond to:
    • Pressure
    • Chemicals
    • Temperature
  • Often associated with pain
49
Q

Cutaneous Receptors

A
  • Neurone may connect to specialised receptors in the skin.
  • These cells respond to different types of -
    stimuli

Examples include:
- Merkel’s Disc
- Pacinian Corpuscles
- Meissner Corpuscles
- Ruffini Endings

50
Q

Muscle Spindles

A
  • Specialised REceptors to detect changes in muscle length and tension
  • Allow the NS to detect muscle movement and stretch
51
Q

Exteroceptive vs Interoceptive Receptors

A

Exteroceptors transduce information from the external environment:
- Light for vision
- Pressure for touch etc

Interoceptors transduce information from the internal environment:
- Stretch receptors from the gut
- Blood pressure receptors in the aorta

52
Q

The Eye

A
  • Specialised structure of the visual system
  • Focus light onto the retina at the back
  • 3 main layers:
    • White sclera and clear cornea on outside
    • Choroid, ciliary body and iris of middle
    • Innermost retinal
53
Q

Extraocular Muscles

A
  • Each eye has 6 muscles attaching to the sclera :
    • Medial, lateral, superior, inferior rectus
    • Superior and inferior oblique
  • The medial and lateral recti move the eye
    medial or laterally respectively
  • The action of the obliques depends on the
    position of the eye
  • The “neutral” position of the eye is looking
    straight ahead
54
Q

Extraocular Muscles Actions

A

Lateral Rectus = Abduction
Medial Rectus = Adduction
Superior Rectus = Elevation
Inferior Rectus = Depression
Superior Oblique = Intorsion
Inferior Oblique = Extorsion

55
Q

Lens of the Eye

A
  • Focuses light
56
Q

Retina

A
  • Contains light-sensing cells
  • The lens focuses the centre of vision onto the fovea in the macula
  • Clarity/detail
  • Supplied by retinal vessels (arises from internal carotid)
57
Q

Retinal Layers

A
  • Light receptors are deep in the retina/toward the outside of the eye.
  • Other connecting neurones and blood vessels overlie the receptors.
58
Q

Light Receptors

A

2 types:
- Rods = about 1 million
- Cones = about 7 million

59
Q

Rods

A
  • More sensitive to light
  • Better in low light situations and detecting movement and contract.
  • Do not detect colour
60
Q

Cones

A
  • Detect colour
  • Higher acuity (better for fine detail)
61
Q

The Ear

A
  • Ear is a specialised structure for hearing and detection of motion for balance
  • Outer ear = part to the tympanic membrane
  • Middle ear = cavity between inner and outer ear
  • Inner ear = innermost section of the ear
62
Q

Outer Ear

A
  • Visible part of the ear that collects sound waves and funnels them into the ear canal.
63
Q

Middle Ear

A
  • Facilitate the transmission of sound vibrations to the inner ear
  • Sound hits tympanic membrane causing it to vibrate.
  • Vibrations are transmitted to the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes)
64
Q

Inner Ear

A
  • Contains the bony labyrinth, then the membranous labyrinth within that
  • Between BL and ML is perilylymphatic fluid
  • Within ML is endolymphatic fluid

Consists of:
- Cochlear = transduction of vibration into electrical impulses
- Vestibular apparatus = transduces head movements into electrical impulses

65
Q

Cochlear

A
  • Spiral shaped structure
  • Facilitates transmission of sound vibrations
  • Sound vibrations are detected by specialised receptors called hair cells

Parts:
- Scala Vestibuli = The upper chamber, filled with perilymph.

  • Scala Media (Cochlear Duct) = The middle chamber, filled with endolymph.

-Scala Tympani = The lower chamber, also filled with perilymph.

66
Q

Cochlear Key Functional Aspects

A
  • Sound transmission
  • Frequency discrimination
  • Hair cell activation
  • Signal transmission to the brain
67
Q

Vestibular

A

2 Parts:
- 3 semicircular canals
* Detect rotational movement of the head
- 2 otoliths
* Detect linear movements of the head

68
Q

Semicircular Canals

A

Anterior:
- Detect forward rotations of the head.

Posterior:
- Detects backward movements of the head.

Horizontal:
- Detects side to side rotations

69
Q

Semicircular Canals Fluid

A
  • As the head moves the inertia of the fluid moves it relative to the canal.
  • Moving fluid displaces the cupula which contains receptor hair cells.
  • Hair cells convert the movement into electrical signals.
70
Q

Otolithic Organs

A

Utricle:
- Approx. horizontally orientated
- Detects anterior-posterior and lateral linear movements.

Saccule:
- Approx, vertically orientated
- Detects anterior-posterior and vertical linear movements.

71
Q

Hearing Loss

A

Conductive Hearing Loss:
- Occurs when sound waves are blocked from reaching the inner ear.
- Causes may include earwax buildup, fluid in the middle ear, or damage to the eardrum or ossicles.

Sensorineural Hearing Loss:
- Results from damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or the auditory nerve.
- Causes may include aging, notice exposure, genetic factors, or certain diseases.

Mixed Hearing Loss:
- A combination of both conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.

72
Q

Taste

A
  • Mediated by receptors covering the tongue and the oral cavity.
  • Musch of what is perceived as taste is actually smell.

5 Basic types:
- Sweet
- Salty
- Bitter
- Sour
- Umami (savory)

73
Q

Papillae

A
  • Tongue is covered by small bumps called papillae.
  • Contains 100’s of tastebuds, which in urn contain 50-100 receptor cells.
74
Q

Taste Receptor Cells

A
  • Detect different taste stimuli
  • Have microvilli that project into a taste pore, where they come into contact with tastants.
75
Q

Taste Buds

A

Sweet:
- Detect the presence of glucose or other sweet substances like fructose or aspartame

Salt:
- Detect the presence of sodium ions.

Sour:
- Detect the presence of hydrogen ions (acidity).

Bitter:
- Number of different bitter-tasting molecules

Savoury:
- Detect L-glutamate, often found in meat

76
Q

Taste Nerves

A
  • The electrical signals from taste receptor cells are transmitted via 3 cranial nerves to the brainstem:
    • Facial (CNVII) = taste to the anterior two
      thirds of the tongue
    • Glossopharyngeals (CNIX) = supplies taste
      to the rest of the tongue
    • Vagus (CNX) = supplies taste to the rest of
      the mouth
77
Q

Smell - Olfaction

A
  • Takes place in the top of the nasal cavity.
  • Bipolar olfactory receptor neurones are
    located in the epithelium.
  • Their projections extend up through the
    cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone
  • In order for smell molecules to reach the receptors, they must dissolve.
  • A certain degree of moisture is needed.
  • Too much or too little mucus will impair smell.
78
Q

Odor Molecules

A
  • Thousands of different odor molecules can be detected by the olfactory system.
  • Odorants bind to specific receptors on olfactory receptor neurons, triggering a cascade of events that lead to the generation of electrical signals.
79
Q

Olfactory Tract

A
  • Olfactory bulb is the termination of the olfactory tract.
  • Olfactory tract travels into the medial temporal lobe.
  • Smell is the only sense to bypass the thalamus.

Human Body (5 decks)

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