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Higher Human Biology > Neurobiology and Communication > Flashcards

Neurobiology and Communication Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the nervous system do?

A

Analyses sensory info from the body and the external environment, stores some aspects, makes decisions regarding appropriate responses and behaviours.

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2
Q

How does the nervous system make motor responses?

A

By initiating muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

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3
Q

How is the nervous system structured?

A

Nervous System
_____________I_____________
I I
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
____I______ _______I_______
I I I I
Brain Spinal Chord Somatic Autonomic
_______________I__
I I
Sympathetic Parasympathetic

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4
Q

What is the brain made up of?

A

Cerebrum- thoughts
Cerebellum- balance
Medulla- breathing

  • the brain processes information
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5
Q

What is the function of the spinal chord?

A

Connects the brain with the peripheral nervous system

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6
Q

What is the function of the peripheral nervous system?

A

Carries information to and from all parts of the body.

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7
Q

What is the function of the somatic nervous system?

A

Voluntary responses (covering ears in response to noise) and (mainly) involves nerves.

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8
Q

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Involuntary responses (e.g. touching something hot)

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9
Q

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Prepares the body for action (fight or flight)

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10
Q

What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Prepares body for rest and recovery (rest and digest)

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11
Q

What do sensory pathways do?

A

Carry nerve impulses to the CNS from receptors. Sensory pathways keep the brain in touch with what is going on to the body’s external and internal environments.

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12
Q

Where are receptors located?

A

Some are located in external sense organs (i.e. skin, eye retina, ear cochlea) and others are found in internal sense.

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13
Q

What are the sympathetic and parasympathetic said to be?

A

Antagonistic- they affect the same structures but have opposite effects on them.

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14
Q

What do parasympathetic nerves do?

A 
Constrict pupils 
Stimulate Saliva 
Slow heartbeat
Constrict airways 
Stimulate activity of stomach
Inhibit the release of glucose, stimulates gallbladder 
Stimulates intestinal activity 
Contracts bladder

-conserves resources as a result of this

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15
Q

What do sympathetic nerves do?

A 
Dilate pupils 
Inhibit Saliva 
Increase heartbeat
Relax airways 
Inhibits activity of stomach
Stimulate the release of glucose, inhibits gallbladder 
Inhibits intestinal activity 
Relaxes bladder
  • when the body is active or excited
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16
Q

What are the three layers of the brain called?

A

3 layers - central core, the limbic system, cerebral cortex

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17
Q

What does the central core contain?

A

The medulla

The cerebellum

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18
Q

What does the medulla control?

A

Regulates the basic life processes of breathing, heart rate, arousal (being awake and aware of external environment) and sleep

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19
Q

What does the cerebellum control?

A

Balance, posture and movement

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20
Q

What are the functions of the limbic system?

A

Processing info for memories, regulating emotional states (e.g. anxiety, fear and aggression) and influencing biological motivation (e.g. hunger, thirst and sex drive)

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21
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

Bundle of nerves/Bridge of tissue deep within the brain which connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Enables info to be transferred between the hemispheres.

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22
Q

What are the functions of the cerebral cortex?

A
  • is the outer layer of the cerebrum
    Cerebrum divided into two cerebral hemispheres
    Left side processes info from the right visual field and controls the right side of the body. Vice versa for the right hemisphere. Centre of conscious thought, recalls memories and alters behaviour in the light of experience. Areas of the CC are also responsible for mental processes such as intelligence, personality, creativity, imagination and conscience.
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23
Q

What are the names of the three functional areas contained within the cerebral cortex?

A

Sensory
Association
Motor

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24
Q

What does the motor area of the cerebral cortex do?

A

Receives information from the association areas and carries out the orders by sending impulses to skeletal muscles.

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25
Q

What does the sensory area of the cerebral cortex do?

A

Receives impulses from skin, organs, and muscles.

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26
Q

What does the association area of the cerebral cortex do?

A

Receives impulses from the eyes and interprets the impulses from the sensory area to make sense of them and make decisions.
For language- receives impulses from the ears and processes understanding of sounds.Receives impulses from cortex and sends impulses to lips, tongue and vocal chords.

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27
Q

What is the area contained in the rear of the cerebrum?

A

Visual area- receives impulses from the retina

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28
Q

What is the area contained in the part of the cerebrum beneath the ears?

A

Auditory area- receives impulses from the cochlea

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29
Q

What is the area contained in the front of the auditory area?

A

Speech motor area- controls the tongue, lips and vocal chords.

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30
Q

What does the somatosensory area do?

A

Receives impulses from sensory receptors in skin, muscles and organs.

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31
Q

What is perception?

A

Processes by which the brain analyses and makes sense of incoming information by segregating objects from each other and their background recognising what they are and judging their distance from us.

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32
Q

What are the three areas of perception?

A

Segregation of objects
Perception of distance
Recognition

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33
Q

What does the segregation of objects entail?

A
  • perceptual organisation into figure and ground
  • perceptual organisation of stimuli into coherent patterns
  • visual cues (relative size, superimosition, relative height in field)
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34
Q

Explain what is meant by the term ‘figure and ground’

A

Any line that encloses an area whose shape is recognized as representing an object appears to stand out from the background in a oblivious manner.

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35
Q

What does the perception of distance entail?

A
  • binocular disparity

- perceptual constancy as objects become nearer and the viewing angle changes.

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36
Q

What is binocular disparity?

A

Each eye looks at an object from a slightly different position relative to the other eye.

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37
Q

What is perceptual constancy?

A

The capacity to appreciate the unchanging dimensions of an object as it moves.

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38
Q

What does recognition entail?

A
  • importance of shape rather than detail
  • matching perceived shapes to shape descriptions stored in memory
  • role of interference in recognition
  • influence of perceptual set where past experience, context or expectation influences the way a stimulus is percieved.
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39
Q

What is interference?

A

Process that can assist optimum perception in uncertain situations.

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40
Q

What is perceptual set?

A

Factors influencing perception, including experience, context and expectations.

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41
Q

What is relative size?

A

The further away an object is situated from the eye, the smaller it is perceived to be.

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42
Q

What is superimposition?

A

When the image of one object partially blocks that of another by superimposition the object is perceived further away.

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43
Q

What is relative height in field?

A

The higher u an object is situated from the eye, the smaller it is percieved to be.

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44
Q

What does memory involve?

A

Storage
Retention
Retrieval

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45
Q

What is the role of sensory memory?

A

To retain all of the visual and auditory input. Information is stored in the sensory memory for a few seconds.

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46
Q

What is short term memory and what does it entail?

A

STM only holds a limited amount of info, known as the memory store, usually about 7 items. Items are held in the STM for about 30 seconds before being moved to LTM or lost by displacement or decay.

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47
Q

What does displacement mean in terms of memory?

A

Old memories are ‘pushed’ out by a new one.

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48
Q

What does decay mean in terms of memory?

A

Loss of information

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49
Q

What is working memory?

A

An extension of STM used to perform cognitive tasks.

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50
Q

What is chunking?

A

Group things together to make a single item.

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51
Q

What is rehearsal?

A

When things are repeated to extend time in STM.

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52
Q

What is the serial position effect?

A

You are more likely to remember the first and last thing.

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53
Q

Describe the role of rehearsal in transferring information from the STM to the LTM?

A

Rehearsal facilitates the transfer of information from the STM to LTM

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54
Q

Describe the role of organisation in transferring information from the STM to the LTM?

A

Where information is grouped or categorised in a logical way.

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55
Q

Describe the role of elaboration in transferring information from the STM to the LTM?

A

Facts are easier to transfer to the LTM if they are part of a bigger story

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56
Q

What is encoding?

A

The conversion of one or more nerve impulses into a form that can be recieved and held by the brain and retrieved later from the STM or LTM.

57
Q

Give an example of shallow encoding.

A

Information encoded by repetition for example.

58
Q

Give an example of elaborate encoding.

A

Facts are easier to transfer to the LTM if they are part of a bigger story.

59
Q

How are contextual cues used to aid memory retieval?

A

CCs are a signal or reminder relating to the conditions or circumstances that were present at the time when the information was encoded into the LTM.

60
Q

What are episodic memorys and where are they stored?

A
  • Recall of personal facts and experiences, e.g. knowing birthdays, memories of a holiday.
  • Stored in various regions of the cortex
61
Q

What are somantic memories and where are they stored?

A
  • Recall of general knowledge and non-personal facts, e.g. knowing some capital cities, concept of gravity
  • Stored in various regions of the cortex
62
Q

What are procedural memories and where are they stored?

A
  • Motor and mental skills, e.g. hitting tennis shots, how to do arithmetic
  • Stored in the motor cortex
63
Q

What are emotional memories and where are they stored?

A
  • Form when positive or negative associations are made with experiences e.g, liking going to the cinema, disliking going to the dentist
  • Has links between cortex and limbic system
64
Q

What are spatial memories and where are they stored?

A
  • Recall of info about the environmental and relative position of objects, e.g how to get to the airport, where things are in the kitchen
  • Stored in the limbic system
65
Q

What are the names of the three types of nerve cells?

A

Sensory neurons
Interneurons
Motor neurons

66
Q

What are nerves?

A

Bundles of nerve fibers which carry electrical impulses from one part of the body to another.

67
Q

What do nerve cells consist of?

A

A nerve cell body which contains the nucleus and cytoplasm- containing organelles including ribosomes which make various proteins including enzymes needed for the synthesis of neurotransmitters- and nerve fibres

68
Q

What are dendrites?

A

Nerve fibres that receive nerve impulses and carry them towards the cell body.

69
Q

What is an axon?

A

A nerve fibre which carries impulses away from the cell body.

70
Q

What is the rule for the direction a nerve impulse will always travel?

A

dendrite -> cell body -> axon

71
Q

What is a myelin sheath?

A

Insulates the axon and speeds up impulse conduction from node to node.

72
Q

What is myelination?

A

Development of myelin round axon fibres of individual neurons. It is not complete at birth so nervous control increases over the first two years as many more axons are myelinated . Myelination contines from birth to adolescence.

73
Q

Describe what a motor neuron looks like.

A
  • short dendrites which make contact with other neurones in the CNS
  • nerve cell body
  • long myelinated axon that carries impulses to the many axon terminals within a muscle.
74
Q

Describe what a sensory neuron looks like

A
  • Have one or several dendrites making contact with receptors in a sense organ. These merge to form a myelinated fibre which carries impluses to the cell body
  • a short axon and axon branches make contact with CNS neurons
75
Q

Describe what a interneuron looks like

A

connects a sensory and motor neuron

76
Q

What are glial cells?

A

Glial cells DO NOT transmit nerve impulses, they physically support the neurons

  • some produce a myelin sheath for the axon
  • others help to control the fluid surrounding the neuron so maintain a homeostatic environment around the neurons
  • some are phagocytic removing debris and foreign material from the CNS
77
Q

What is a synapse?

A

Tiny gaps between two neurons

78
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals that relay messages from nerve to nerve within and out with the brain.

79
Q

What is a synaptic cleft?

A

Where neurons connect with other neurons, muscle fibres and endrocrine glands at a synaptic cleft.

80
Q

Where are neurotransmitters stored and when are they released?

A

-Stored in vesicles and released into the cleft on arrival of an impulse.

81
Q

What do neurotransmitters do when released?

A

Diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors o nerve endings and if sufficient transmitter molecules reach the membrane of the next neuron the impulse continues.

82
Q

Why are weak stimuli filtered out?

A

Not enough transmitter molecules reach the nect neuron

83
Q

Why are transmitter molecules removed from the synaptic cleft between impulses?

A

To prevent the continuous stimulation of post-synaptic neurons

84
Q

Give two examples of neurotransmitters and explain how they are broken down.

A

Acetylcholine- broken down by enzyme and non- active products reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron and resynthesised into active transmitter
Noradrenaline- reabsorbed directly into presynaptic membrane and stored in a vesicle ready for use.
Mitochondria is the neuron supply ATP for these processes.

85
Q

What type of alteration occurs to a post-synaptic membrane following the binding of a neurotransmitter?

A

Depends on the type of receptor -

  • can be excitatory (e.g. cause contraction in the heart muscle)
  • can be inhibitory (e.g. reduces the rate and strength of contraction of heart muscle)
86
Q

Under what conditions can a nervous impulse pass a synapse?

A

Only if a certain minimum number of neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft. Weak stimuli fail to cause release of sufficient molecules and so the impulse fails to pass . This system prevents very weak stimuli such as very quiet sounds from bringing about resonses

87
Q

What can a summation of weak stimuli trigger?

A

Summation of weak stimuli from many neurons at once can trigger enough neurotransmitter to fire an imulse.

88
Q

What are converging pathways?

A

Where two or more neurons feed impulses to one neuron , e.g. from rod cell is the eye. In dim light the impulses from many rods converge and together the sum of these impulses, allow vision to read in dim light.

89
Q

What do converging neural pathways do?

A

Increase the sensitivity to excitatory or inhibitory signals.

90
Q

What are diverging neural pathways?

A

An impulse in one neuron can have a simultaneous effect in many parts of the body. These type of pathways are usually involved in the coordination of the body, e.g. fine motor control.

91
Q

What is a reverberating pathway?

A

Impulses can be re-cycled back through the pathway continuously to bring about repeated activities such as breathing which requires to be repeated for a lifetime.

92
Q

What is the plasticity of response?

A

Refers to the creation of new neural pathways in the brain to allow new responses to be made. Enables new neural pathways to form during early development when learning new skills or in a response to brain injury.

93
Q

What is major plasticity?

A

Major plasticity following brain damage is when undamaged cells form new neural pathways which take on the function of the damaged area.

94
Q

What is minor plasticity?

A

Is when the brain suppresses reflexes such as blinking, or suppresses sensory impulses causing distraction from a task.

95
Q

What are endorphins?

A

Neurotransmitters that stimulate neurons involved i reducing the intensity of pain. Increased endorphin levels are also connected with euphoric feelings, appetite modulation and release of sex hormones.

96
Q

When is endorphin production increased?

A

Endorphin production increases in response to severe injury, prolonged and continuous exercise, stress and certain foods.

97
Q

What does dopamine do?

A

Induces feeling of pleasure and reinforces behavior in the reward pathway.

98
Q

When is the brain’s reward pathway activated?

A

On engagement of beneficial behaviours, e.g. eating when hungry.

99
Q

What do agonists do?

A

Agonists bind to and stimulate receptors on the membrane of post-synaptic neurones mimicking the neurotransmitter and triggering a normal cellular response.

100
Q

What do antagonists do?

A

Bind to specific receptors on the post synaptic membrane blocking the action of the neurotransmitter and reducing it halting transmission of nerve impulses.

101
Q

What do agonistic drugs do?

A

Enhances the transmission of impulses

102
Q

What do antagonistic drugs do?

A

Blocks receptors and prevents transmission of impulses.

103
Q

What do recreational drugs do?

A

Mimic neurotransmitters and cause changes in neurochemistry

104
Q

What does changes in neurochemistry change?

A

Changes mood
Cognition
Perception and behaviour

105
Q

How do recreational drugs interact with neurotransmitters?

A
  • stimulate the release of neurotransmitters
  • imitate their action (agonists)
  • block their binding (antagonists)
  • and/or inhibit their reuptake/ enzymologie degradation
106
Q

What is drug addiction?

A

A chronic disease that causes the sufferer to compulsively seek out and use the drug regardless of the consequences.

107
Q

What is sensitisation?

A

An increase in the number and the sensitivity of receptors which results from exposure to antagonist drugs and leads to addiction.

108
Q

What is desensitisation?

A

The decrease in number and sensitivity of receptors which results from exposure to agonist drugs and leads to drug tolerance.

109
Q

Why is early infant attachment important?

A

It lays the foundation for the future formation of stable relationships in

110
Q

What is infant attachment?

A

The tie that binds the baby to the carer. The mother or primary carer should satisfy the needs of the baby such as food, contact and comfort.

111
Q

What does indiscriminate mean in terms of infant attachment?

A

The baby will attach to anyone who feeds it and gives the baby comfort .

112
Q

When does specific attachment become evident?

A

Specific attachment between the mother and a few other carers becomes evident between 6 and 9 months.

113
Q

What is the ‘strange situation’?

A

A research tool used to investigate infant attachment where experts can assess whether a child is securely or insecurely attached to their primary care giver.

114
Q

What are some signs of secure attachment that can be shown when a child is exposed to ‘the strange situation’ experiment?

A
  • child explores freely and plays with toys on introduction to the room
  • major distress is displayed when mother leaves the room
  • child resists comfort from stranger when offered in the abscence of the mother
  • child goes to the mother immediately when she returns for comfort and then returns to playing
115
Q

What are some signs of avoidant attachment that can be shown when a child is exposed to ‘the strange situation’ experiment?

A
  • child hardly plays or explores
  • when mother leaves child displays indifference
  • accepts comfort from a stranger if required
  • ignores mother or looks away approaching her
116
Q

What are some signs of resistant attachment that can be shown when a child is exposed to ‘the strange situation’ experiment?

A
  • child does not explore freely or play with toys even when mother is present
  • when mother leaves child shows major distress
  • resists comfort from stranger
  • both seeks and resists comfort at the same time when mother approaches
117
Q

What are infants with a secure attachment more likely to do?

A

Investigate their immediate environment helping the development of cognitive abilities

118
Q

What is the quality of a child’s social competence affected by?

A

The method of control adopted by their parents

119
Q

What is authoritative control and what does it result in?

A

Where parents are either unreasonably strict or demanding but responsive. It generally results in greater social competence than permissive control.

120
Q

What is permissive control?

A

Where parents are highly supportive but make few rules and trusts rather than monitors.

121
Q

What is communication?

A

The exchange of information, facts, feelings, ideas and opinions between people. It can be verbal or non–verbal

122
Q

What forms does non-verbal communication come in?

A 
Smiling in infants
Facial Expressions
Eye contact
Body language 
Physical proximity 
Touching
123
Q

Why is non-verbal communication important?

A

It can give information about attitude and emotion and is important in the formation of relationships between individuals.

124
Q

Why is non-verbal communication important, specifically in infants?

A

It is the first that all infants can manage

Smiling is an effective way for an infant to reinforce the bond between parent and child.

125
Q

Why is non-verbal communication important, specifically in adults?

A

It enhances the effect of words, conveying mood, emotions and attitudes. It is also subconscious so we are often unaware of the information we are conveying.

126
Q

How is verbal communication used?

A

In the transfer of knowledge, development of culture and social evolution.

127
Q

Why does language also use symbols?

A

To represent information that can then be organised into categories (words), and hierarchies (phrases, sentences and paragraphs)) thus accelerating learning and intelletual development .

128
Q

What is learning?

A

A change in behavior as a result of experience.

129
Q

What does the repeated use of a motor skill do?

A

Results in a new motor pathway in the brain being established (motor memory), e.g. learning to drive a car, ride a bike. Eventually the skill becomes automatic

130
Q

How is much of our behaviour learned?

A

Through observing and imitating the behaviour of others, e.g. learning how to operate a smartphone. Many social skills and attitudes are learnt through imitating parenrs or siblings.

131
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

When behaviour patterns that have positive consequences for the individual are likely to be repeated.

132
Q

What is shaping?

A

Term used for rewarding a behaviour that is nearly what is wanted in the hope that the desired behaviour will eventually stop.
Unrewarded behaviour patterns are less likely to be repeated resulting in extinction of the behaviour due to lack of reward.

133
Q

What is generalisation?

A

The ability to respond in the same way to may different but related stimuli, e.g. a child becoming afraid of all dogs because it was once bitten by a dog

134
Q

What is discrimination?

A

When people learn to distinguish between different but related stimuli and give different responses. E.g. only to fear large dogs.

135
Q

What is social facilitation?

A

Increased performance in the prescience of others, when in front of an audience or in competition.

136
Q

What is Identification?

A

Deliberate changing of beliefs to be like an admired influence, e.g. Young adults wanting to be like a role model

137
Q

What is De-individualisation?

A

Individual within a group loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of a group. Often results in anti social behaviour which would not normally be shown by the individual, where the blame is then passed to the group.

138
Q

What is Internalisation?

A

Changing of beliefs as a result of persuasion- politicians, companies try to effect internalisation by attempting to persuade people through adverts, radio ect.

Higher Human Biology (8 decks)

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