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PSYC1002 > Neuro > Flashcards

Neuro Flashcards

1
Q

All-or-none law

A

principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without becoming smaller, to the end of the axon.

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2
Q

Ion transporter

A

a special protein molecule located in the membrane of a cell; actively transports ions into or out of the cell

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3
Q

Ion channel

A

special protein molecule located in the membrane of a cell; controls the entry/exit of particular ions

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4
Q

Ion

A

positively/negatively charged particle; produced when many substances dissolve in water

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5
Q

Resting potential

A

membrane potential of a neuron when it is not producing an action potential

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6
Q

Action potential

A

sudden reversal of the electrical charge across the cell membrane: from the soma to its terminal buttons, causes the release of a neurotransmitter

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7
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

chemical released by terminal buttons that causes the postsynaptic neuron to be excited or inhibited

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8
Q

Myelin sheath

A

insulating material that encases most axons
prevents depolarisation and speeds up propagation of AP

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9
Q

Terminal button

A

the rounded spelling at the end of the axon, releases neurotransmitter

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10
Q

Axon

A

long thin part of a neuron attached to the soma, divided into a few/many branches ending in terminal buttons

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11
Q

Soma

A

cell body, largest part of neuron

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12
Q

Dendrite

A

treelike part of neuron on which other neurons form synapses

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13
Q

Glia

A

cells of the CNS that provide support for neurons and supply them with some essential chemicals

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14
Q

Neurons

A

neural cell that consists of a cell body with dendrites and an axon whose branches end in terminal buttons that synapse with muscle fibres, gland cells or other neurons

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15
Q

Nerves

A

bundles of many thousands of individual fibres wrapped with tough membrane, transmit messages

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16
Q

Wrinkled cortex

A

bulges (gyri) ang grooves (fissures) - more complex brains require a larger cerebral cortex, these increase surface area

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17
Q

Cerebral ventricles

A

hollow, fluid-filled chambers in the brain, produce CSF

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18
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

thin layer of tissue (grey matter) which contains billions of neural cells. Where perceptions take place, memories are stored, plans are formulated and executed.

These cells are connected to other parts of the brain through bundles of nerve fibres called white matter

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19
Q

Blood-brain barrier

A

Capillaries in the brain do not have openings, unlike ones on the rest of the body, to protect the brain from chemical assault

Not perfect, toxic chemicals sometimes still make their way into the brain

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20
Q

Protection of NS

A

Spinal cord runs through the middle of the spinal column - a stack of hollow bones called the vertebrae

Brain and spinal cord enclosed by a three-layered set of membranes known as the meninges

Brain and spinal cord doesn’t not touch skull/vertebrae: floats in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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21
Q

Cerebrum

A

More recently evolved
Perception, memories and behaviours

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22
Q

Cerebellum

A

Attached to back of brain stem
Control and coordinate movements; especially rapid, skilled movements (includes learned ones)

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23
Q

Brain stem

A

Most primitive region of brain - controls physiological functions and automatic behaviours
Some animals, such as amphibians, only have a brain stem and a simple cerebellum

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24
Q

3 major functions of the brain

A
  1. Controlling behaviour
  2. Processing and retaining the information we receive from the environment

3.Regulating the body’s physiological processes

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25
Q

What does the brain control?

A

muscles, glands and internal organs

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26
Q

How does info from the rest of the body reaches the spinal cord and the brain?

A

spinal nerves

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27
Q

How does info from head/neck region reach the brain?

A

cranial nerves

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28
Q

Sensory neuron

A

detects changes in the external/internal environment and sends info about this to CNS

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29
Q

Motor neuron

A

has terminal buttons that form synapses with muscle fibres.

an action potential that travels down its axon will cause the muscle to twitch

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30
Q

Synapse

A

junction between the terminal button of one neuron and the membrane of a muscle fibre, gland or other neuron.
neurons communicate using chemical transmission

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31
Q

presynaptic neuron

A

neuron with terminal buttons that form synapses with and excite/inhibit another neuron

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32
Q

postsynaptic neuron

A

is excited or inhibited by another neuron’s terminal buttons

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33
Q

neurotransmitter receptor

A

special protein molecule located in the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron that responds to molecules of the neurotransmitter

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34
Q

How do receptors produce excitatory/inhibitory effects

A

open ion channels

excitatory synapse: permit NA ions to enter post

inhibitory synapse: permit K ions to leave

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35
Q

Synaptic vesicles

A

bubbles of membrane in terminal buttons

contain molecules of a neurotransmitter

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36
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

fluid-filled gap between pre and post synaptic membranes

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37
Q

Where do terminal buttons release neurotransmitters?

A

synaptic cleft

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38
Q

Reuptake

A

molecules of the neurotransmitter that have been released in cleft are quickly taken up again so that it only has a short time to stimulate the postsynaptic receptors

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39
Q

How do drugs impact synaptic transmission?

A

stimulate/inhibit release of neurotransmitters

mimic the effects of neurotransmitters

block effects

interfere with reuptake - increases the effect of neurotransmitter

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40
Q

Drugs and postsynaptic receptors

A

Stimulate: stimulates receptors

Block: bind with receptor but doesn’t stimulate it, inhibits synaptic transmission

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41
Q

Glutamate

A

important excitatory neurotransmitter in brain and spinal cord

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42
Q

GABA

A

important inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain

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43
Q

Acetylcholine

A

neurotransmitter: responsible for muscular contraction, activates cerebral cortex, controls REM sleep, controls hippocampus

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44
Q

barbiturate

A

drug that causes sedation

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45
Q

benzodiazepine

A

class of drug having anxiolytic effects (e.g. diazepam - valium)

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46
Q

Neostigmine

A

drug that enhances effects of ACh by blocking the enzyme that usually destroys it

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47
Q

nicotine

A

binds andf stimulate ACh receptors, mimicking the effects

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48
Q

monoamine

A

category of neurotransmitters that includes dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin

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49
Q

Dopamine

A

movement, attention, learning and reinforcing the effects of drugs that people tend to abuse,

50
Q

What drugs inhibit the reuptake of dopamine?

A

Amphetamine and cocaine

51
Q

Noradrenaline

A

cause an increase in vigilance, controls REM sleep

52
Q

Serotonin

A

regulation of mood, control of eating/sleep/arousal and regulation of pain, suppresses risky behaviours

53
Q

Peptides

A

category of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that consist of two or more amino acids, linked by peptide bonds

54
Q

what are some opiates?

A

Opium, morphine and heroin

55
Q

what effect do endogenous opioids have when they stimulate certain receptors in the brain

A

decreased sensitivity to pain and a tendency to persist in ongoing behaviour

56
Q

Brain lesions

A

Drill hole into skull and insert wire/metal tube to either use electricity to produce heat and destroy a small portion the brain or insert a chemical that over stimulates neurons and kills them.

57
Q

CNS

A

central nervous system - brain and spinal cord

58
Q

PNS

A

Peripheral Nervous system - nerves, ANS, ENS

59
Q

ANS

A

autonomic NS - controls non-voluntary bodily functions (4Fs etc)
uses acetylcholine and noradrenaline

60
Q

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Sympathetic NS: for action
Parasympathetic NS: for rest and recuperation

61
Q

ENS

A

1/2 billion neurons located in the wall of gastrointestinal tract
interacts with brain vis symp and para NS but can function on its own
control digestive activity

62
Q

Meninges

A

flexible sheet made of 3 membranes between bone and nervous tissue
1. Dura mater: tough + thick
2. Arachnoid membrane: spongy, filled wth CSF and blood vessels, cushioning
3. Pia mater: thin membrane against brain

63
Q

Spinal cord

A

interface between brain and PNS
connected to sensory, motor, autonomic nerves
Controls some movement like spinal reflexes

64
Q

Cerebellum damage

A

affect walking, speech

65
Q

Brain stem damage

A

coma, death

66
Q

Thalamus

A

sensory relay to cortex - smell doesnt go through it

67
Q

Hypothalamus

A

hormonal regulation and motivational control

68
Q

Limbic system

A

control of emotion and memory

69
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Action and thought, offline action

70
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

connects the 2 hemispheres of the brain

71
Q

Vertebrates

A

Separation between PNS and CNS
There is an increase in forebrain in animals that exhibit more complex behaviour and neocortex in mammals

72
Q

Resting potential

A

when a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve impulse
inside is more negatively charged than the outside, maintained by sodium potassium pumps.

73
Q

Refractory period

A

the time after an action potential is generated, it cannot produce a new AP because all sodium channels are already opened/being opening at maximum speed

74
Q

Explain why not all stimuli generate an action potential

A

It might be in the refractory period and not enough gates are opening to reach the threshold level

75
Q

Opiates

A

Mimic brain’s opioid NTs

76
Q

Cocaine/amphetamines/ecstasy

A

Promot transmission of main monoamines

77
Q

Caffeine

A

blocks adenosine receptors

78
Q

Antidepressant drugs

A

enhance serotonin and noradrenaline transmission by block reuptake

79
Q

Most anti-schizophrenic drugs…

A

block dopamine

80
Q

Agnostic Drug

A

Activates certain receptors and opens ion channels
deactivates enzyme in the synapse
blocks reuptake
promotes NT release

81
Q

Antagonistic Drug

A

a chemical substance that binds to and blocks the activation of certain receptors, preventing a biological response

82
Q

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A

magnetic pulse is sent that depolarises neurons
discovers what area is roughly responsible for a certain function

83
Q

Electrical Stimulation (EBS)

A

Microinjection into specific region in the brain (drugs - inhibit)

84
Q

Single-cell recording

A

electrode implanted in brain that record output from the brain
more specific

85
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

electrodes placed on scalp that record electrical fields from the brain
not precise/weak

86
Q

CT scan

A

computerised tomography - uses xray images to represent the brain

87
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A

Radioactive-labelled oxygen (or glucose) - radiotracers are injected and emits signals that the PET scan detects where this is happening in the brain (3D)
measures changes in oxygen consumption
good spatial resolution, bad temporal resolution

88
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A

gets hydrogen atoms in the brain to align by bombarding it with high frequency radio waves - identifies brain tissue and creates 2D image

89
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

measures changes in O2 consumption in the brain to indicate what regions are active - good spatial resolution (3D)

90
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

detects a small amount of magnetic field and creates a 3d reconstruction of electrical activity to form a functional map of the brain - expensive and difficult

91
Q

The regulation of feeding

A

Hungry > release ghrelin > tells brain we are hungry > behaviour

92
Q

Leptin

A

makes sure you arent hungry while you sleep

93
Q

What happens to our body when we dont sleep?

A

There is an increase in ghrelin and we become less responsive to insulin - obesity/diabetes
impacts symp NS - heart health

94
Q

what keeps us awake?

A

Noradrenaline neurons in Locus Coeruleus
Serotonin neurons in Raphe nuclei
Acetylcholine neurons in Pons

95
Q

what sends us to sleep?

A

superchiasmatic nucleus controls release of melatonin from pineal gland and has its own clock - signals night-time to the body

96
Q

What happens do adenosine when we sleep?

A

Since adenosine is a byproduct of ATP it builds up in the brain when we are awake. It increases sleepiness by inhibiting alertness centres and stimulating sleep centres. Adenosine is cleared when we sleep

97
Q

Preoptic area (anterior hypothalamus)

A

stimulation can induce sleep

98
Q

electrical activity when we are awake

A

high frequency, noisy

99
Q

electrical activity when we are asleep

A

slow, rhythmic patterns

100
Q

REM sleep

A

brain waves become desynchronised multiple times, rapid eye movement
REM sleep decreases over life span, alcohol reduces it too

101
Q

What causes REM sleep?

A

acetylcholine neurons in the Pons stimulate neurons in the thalamus which project to neural cortex. various areas in the brain become active.
suppression of frontal cortex allows us to turn these experiences into a story
we are paralysed

102
Q

what is the concept of reward?

A

motivation to engage in a particular behaviour

103
Q

neural mechanism of reward

A

dopamine axons in medial forebrain bundle contribute to rewarding effect of electrical stimulation

104
Q

What is hemispheric dominance?

A

Several higher functions are lateralised, one side of the brain is more dominant - most people’s left brain control speech and comprehension

105
Q

Damage to Broca’s area

A

at lower posterior of left frontal lobe
difficulties speaking but can generally understand speech - problems with writing not drawing

106
Q

Damage to Wernicke’s area

A

at posterior region of temporal lobe
causes problems with comprehension speech, cannot read - gibberish speech

107
Q

Split brain

A

remove corpus callosum so the seizure (electrical storm) doesn’t spread to the rest of the brain - may have problems with left and right,

108
Q

Hippocampus

A

memory structure in the brain

109
Q

Hippocampal amnesia

A

anterograde amnesia, deficit to leaning and memory

110
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Can remember old things but unable to retain or learn anything new

111
Q

Wernicke-Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

Vitamin B1 deficiency in chronic alcoholics causing confusion, unusual movements and eye movements - can lead to Korsakoff’s psychosis (anterograde and retrograde amnesia).
damage to mammillary bodies in hypothal

112
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

progressive degeneration of brain tissue
loss of new info > loss of distant memories > loss of facts and finally procedural skills
senile plaques
neuro-fibrillary tangles

113
Q

What is the difference between anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia?

A

anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to make new memories and remember new information and retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of old memories

114
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Planning and executive functions (memory selection as well)
Emotional expression
Problem solving
Memory
Language
Judgement
Sexual behaviours

115
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Sensory experiences are interpreted
Proprioception
Where things are in space, representing space for action

116
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Colour, Form, Motion

117
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Memory
Encoding
Processes auditory info
Taste
Recognise faces
Language

118
Q

3 parts of frontal lobe

A

Prefrontal - higher cognitive functions and personality
Motor
Premotor -

119
Q

Cortical Homunculus

A

Distorted representation of human body based on neurological map of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing function

120
Q

What evidence supports the localisation of function?

A

Different areas of the brain use more energy/oxygen when they are presented with a specific stimulus -
Area in the brain where it responds to seeing faces, there would only be activity when people were shown a face as opposed to other images.

121
Q

What evidence is shown demonstrating that not every brain area is locked to a single function?

A

With mental imagery and visual imagery, multiple parts of the brain were activated or “shared”.
Brain regions can be responsible for multiple functions

PSYC1002 (6 decks)

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