Neural basis of learning

Question 1

Hippocampus

Answer 1

• Key structure for learning new information that will become declarative memory (semantic and episodic). Higher-order animals and humans who have damage to both their hippocampi are able to feel the emotion of fear when they experience pain from a stimulus but are unable to learn/remember to be fearful the next time they are exposed to the same stimulus again.
• The hippocampus is the area of the brain most likely involved in making an **association between stimuli in the environment and a different response or behaviour. **

Question 2

Amygdala

Answer 2

· Essential component of emotional learning (especially fear), and for survival (e.g. if we don’t experience fear, we cannot learn to avoid danger).

Question 3

Basal ganglia

Answer 3

· Basal ganglia; located in the frontal lobes. It uses information from the primary and secondary motor areas of the FL, and the somatosensory cortex to enable co-ordination of movement.

· Also an important structure in learning procedural skills.

Question 4

Cerebellum

Answer 4

· Located in the hindbrain and plays a role in the order of muscular movement, balance and posture.

· Important for learning motor kills and contributing to non-motor learning.

· Works together with the basal ganglia in learning movement sequences so that the movements can be carried out together,

Question 5

Ventral tregmental area

Answer 5

· Located in the midbrain and plays a role in learning through operant conditioning. · More specifically, it plays a role in the rewarding effects of primary reinforcers in operant conditioning, (e.g. food).

Question 6

Brain development during adolescence

Answer 6

· Cerebellum: increase in the number of neurons and synapses in the cerebellum. ·

Amygdala: becomes more active during adolescence.

· Corpus callosum: it thickens and there is an increase in the number of connections between the two hemispheres. ·

Frontal lobe: develops, leading to better motor movement and higher order thinking.

Question 7

Neural pathways

Answer 7

An interconnected group of neurons organised as a network that is active during the learning process. These “neural pathways” essentially become the memory of the learned information.

Question 8

Synapse

Answer 8

junction between neurons. It comprises of the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrite of the post synaptic neuron.

Question 9

Long term potentiation

Answer 9

the long-lasting strengthening of the synaptic connections of the neurons resulting in an enhanced functioning of neurons

Question 10

Neurtransmitter

Answer 10

chemical substances that carry information between neurons.

Question 11

Glutamate

Answer 11

an excitatory neurotransmitter that strengthens the connections at the synapse during learning (LTP), thus it is important for memory and learning (it makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire). It has a vital role in associative learning in the hippocampus.

Question 12

Dopamine

Answer 12

a neurotransmitter which communicates activities which may be rewarding through ‘pleasure’ experience. It is released when there is an increase in glutamate.

Question 13

Hormones involved in learning

Answer 13

When learning occurs, glutamate is released causing changes in the dendrites of the next neuron and causes production of the neurotransmitter dopamine which in turn causes growth of new spines, or branches, in the dendrites.

In other words, dopamine is involved in the proliferation of dendritic spines after repeated exposure of the neurotransmitter glutamate.

As a result, the postsynaptic neuron is more sensitive to future signals from presynaptic neurons.

Question 14

Synaptogenesis

Answer 14

the formation of new synapses, particularly during the early brain development.