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Biology > Nervous Co-ordination and Muscles > Flashcards

Nervous Co-ordination and Muscles Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Nervous System

A

Uses nerve cells to pass electrical impulses along their length. Stimulates target cells through the release of neurotransmitters to allow for rapid communication between specific parts of an organism (e.g. a reflex arc)

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2
Q

Hormonal System

A

Produces chemicals (hormones) that are transported in the blood plasma to target cells. Stimulates target cells by increasing hormone concentration, allowing for slow and long-lasting communication at the target cells of the organism (e.g. controlling blood glucose level)

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3
Q

Cell Body

A

A part of a neurone that contains usual cell organelles including a high number of endoplasmic reticulum. Also associated with the production of proteins and neurotransmitters

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4
Q

Dendrons

A

A part of a neurone that is an extension of the cell body, divided into small branched fibres (dendrites) to carry a nervous impulse towards the neurone from the previous cell

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5
Q

Axon

A

A part of the neurone that is a single long fibre which carries nervous impulses away from the cell body

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6
Q

Schwann Cells

A

A part of the neurone that surrounds the axon, serving as protection and electrical insulation, whilst carrying out phagocytosis and assisting in nerve regeneration. These wrap around the axon many times so that there are multiple layers of membrane surrounding the axon.

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7
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

A part of the neurone that is comprised of multiple Schwann cells that run along the axon. The membranes of the Schwann cells are rich in the lipid myelin

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8
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

A part of the neurone that is not protected by a myelin sheath and acts as small constrictions between myelinated sections. These are important as they allow for the depolarisation of the next section of the axon

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9
Q

Sensory Neurone

A

A type of neurone that transmits nervous impulses from a receptor to an intermediate neurone. Contain one dendron that is very long to carry the impulse towards the cell body, and one axon to carry the impulse away from the cell body

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10
Q

Motor Neurone

A

A type of neurone that transmits nervous impulses from an intermediate neurone to an effector. Contains a long axon and many short dendrites

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11
Q

Intermediate Neurone

A

A type of neurone that transmits nervous impulses between neurones. Contains many dendrites and has many short processes

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12
Q

Resting Potential

A

A state of the neurone that is maintained in three ways:
1) Sodium-potassium pump allows 3Na+ to leave and 2K+ to enter the membrane
2) Sodium ion channels remain closed to prevent sodium movement
3) Potassium ion channels remain open to allow for diffusion out of the membrane
The outside is always more positive than inside the membrane

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13
Q

The normal resting potential of humans

A

65mV

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14
Q

The range of resting potential for organisms that have nervous impulses

A

50-90mV

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15
Q

The normal charge of depolarisation in humans

A

40mV

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16
Q

Depolarisation

A

The process by which a stimulus forces the sodium voltage-gated channels to open, allowing for an influx of sodium ions, making the axon membrane much less negative.
From this, the sodium voltage-gated channels close and potassium channels open, allowing for the movement of potassium out of the membrane

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17
Q

Hyperpolarisation

A

The process by which the outward movement of potassium ions from the axon membrane causes an overshoot of an electrical gradient, forcing the inside of the membrane to be too negative. This forces the closing for potassium channels

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18
Q

Refactory Period

A

The time it takes after hyperpolarisation for the electrical overshoot to be restored back to resting potential after an action potential has occurred

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19
Q

Purpose of refactory Period

A

A factor that helps an action potential by ensuring action potentials travel in one direction only, producing discrete impulses (separates impulses) and limits the number of action potentials

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20
Q

Repolarisation

A

The process by which an axon membrane returns to resting potential after being depolarised

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21
Q

Repolarisation

A

The process by which an action potential can “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next from the electrochemical gradient

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22
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

The process by which an action potential can “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next from the electrochemical gradient

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23
Q

Unmyelinated Action Potential

A

The process of an action potential travelling along an axon. The process starts at depolarisation at one end, which stimulates depolarisation at the next section of the axon, allowing for gradual movement along the axon

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24
Q

Diameter of Axon

A

A factor that affects the speed at which an action potential travels. If this factor is larger then there is less leakage of ions from the axon which allows for faster conduction

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25
Q

Myelinated Action Potential

A

The process of an action potential travelling along an axon. The process starts at depolarisation at one end, which allows for saltatory conduction of the impulse to the next node of Ranvier, allowing for gradual movement along the axon

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26
Q

Temperature

A

A factor that affects the speed at which an action potential travels. If this factor is higher then there is better function of enzymes to allow for more efficient respiration and a faster transfer of ions, which allows for faster conduction along the axon

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27
Q

Myelination

A

A factor that affects the speed at which an action potential travels. A neurone that doesn’t have this will not be able to undergo saltatory conduction, therefore the passage of the nervous impulse will happen more slowly (3x more slowly)

28
Q

Threshold Value

A

The level of stimulus which will allows for the all-or-nothing principle. Below this level, there will be no action potential, but reaching this level will allow for an action potential

29
Q

Strong Stimulus

A

This type of stimulus can be identified in two ways:
1) Multiple impulses within a given time frame
2) Different neurones are stimulated with different threshold values

30
Q

Weak Stimulus

A

This type of stimulus can be identified in two ways:
1) Few impulses within a given time frame
2) Few neurones are stimulated with only similar threshold values

31
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

The space between the presynaptic neurone and the postsynaptic neurone

32
Q

Synaptic Knob

A

The end of a neurone that is swollen and contains many mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum

33
Q

Synaptic Vesicles

A

The location by which neurotransmitters are stored before they are released into the synaptic cleft

34
Q

Unidirectionality

A

The movement of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic to postsynaptic neurone, in one direction

35
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Where multiple presynaptic neurones release neurotransmitter to meet the threshold value, to trigger an action potential at one postsynaptic neurone

36
Q

Temporal Summation

A

Where one presynaptic neurone releases neurotransmitter to meet the threshold value, to trigger an action potential at one postsynaptic neurone

37
Q

Inhibitory Synapse

A

A type of synapse that makes a new action potential less likely to occur by releasing a specific type of neurotransmitter to release chloride ions (allowing for movement into the postsynaptic neurone) and opens nearby potassium channels (allowing for movement out of the postsynaptic neurone). This makes the postsynaptic neurone more negative, making it harder for the threshold value to be met

38
Q

Cholinergic Synapse

A

A type of synapse that has the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. These are common in vertebrates, involved in the CNS and at neuromuscular junctions

39
Q

Morphine and Codeine

A

Mimic endorphins by blocking pain sensations

40
Q

Prozac

A

A drug that will interfere with serotonin levels to restore them to a normal state (acts as an antidepressant)

41
Q

Valium

A

A drug that prevents the inhibiting of action potentials by the neurotransmitter GABA, allowing for continued stimulation

42
Q

Release of Acetylcholine

A

An influx of calcium ions in the synaptic knob stimulates the fusing for the synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic membrane

43
Q

Influx of Sodium Ions

A

The acetylcholine binds to the sodium receptor sites, altering its quaternary structure to allow for sodium diffusion

44
Q

Uptake and Acetylcholine Reformation

A

Acetylcholinesterase hydrolyses the acetylcholine into choline and ethanoic acid, which are then taken up by the presynaptic neurone. The ATP formed by the mitochondria allows for the condensation reaction between the two

45
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

Muscle that is only found in the heart, performing contractions for a heartbeat

46
Q

Smooth Muscle

A

Muscle that is found on the walls of the blood vessels and the gut, allowing for movement of blood and churning or food

47
Q

Skeletal Muscle

A

Muscle that is found in most areas of the body that undergo voluntary action, we consciously use this muscle type all of the time

48
Q

Myofibrils

A

group of millions of small muscle fibres

49
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

The cytoplasm and nuclei shared by skeletal muscle

50
Q

Isotropic Bands

A

Light bands of muscle where there is no overlap of different filament types

51
Q

Anisotropic Bands

A

Dark bands of muscle where there is overlap of the different filament types

52
Q

H-Zone

A

Centre of the A-band

53
Q

Z-line

A

Centre of each I band

54
Q

Sarcomere

A

Distance between adjacent Z-lines

55
Q

Actin

A

Thin protein filaments in muscle which consist of two strands twisted around each other

56
Q

Myosin

A

Thick protein filaments in muscle which consist of long strands with protruding bulbous heads. The tail is a fibrous protein, whilst the bulbous head is a globular protein

57
Q

Tropomyosin

A

A protein which wraps around actin fibres

58
Q

Myoglobin

A

A bright red molecule that is adapted for the storage of oxygen

59
Q

Phosphocreatine

A

A molecule that can rapidly regenerate ATP from ADP

60
Q

Slow-twitch Fibres

A

A type of muscle fibre which is adapted for aerobic respiration, with a large store of myoglobin, a rich blood supple and numerous mitochondria. These contract slowly, they are not very powerful but last for a long time

61
Q

Fast-twitch Fibres

A

A type of muscle fibre which is adapted for anaerobic respiration, with thicker and more numerous myosin fibres, a high concentration of glycogen, a store of phosphocreatine and a high concentration of enzymes involved with the formation of ATP. These contract quickly, with a high amount of power, but are short lasting

62
Q

Neuromuscular Junction

A

The location by which a neurone and a muscle meet, the transmission of a nervous impulse is the same as that of a cholinergic synapse. However, is only excitatory, using motor neurones at the end of the neural pathway

63
Q

Myosin Attachment

A

Action potentials travel along T-tubules that branch throughout the sarcoplasm. The action potential stimulates the release of Ca+ ions into the cytoplasm from the endoplasmic reticulum to allow for the ions to move along the concentration gradient, causing the tropomyosin to pull away from the actin filament. ADP attached to the myosin head allows for the binding to the actin filament to form a cross-bridge

64
Q

Sliding Filament Action

A

The cross-bridge formed allows for the myosin heads to change their angle, pulling the actin along with it in the process. This releases a molecule of ADP. From this, an ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head, causing the myosin to detach from the actin filament

65
Q

Myosin Restoration

A

The Ca+ ions present activate ATPase, which hydrolyses the ATP attached to the myosin head, restoring the ADP and providing the energy for the myosin to return to its original position.

66
Q

High Ca+ Concentration

A

The factor that allows for the sliding filament action to continue in the muscles

67
Q

Muscle Relaxation

A

Ca+ ions are actively transported back into the endoplasmic reticulum, using energy from the hydrolysis of ATP. This allows for the tropomyosin to block the actin molecule again, allowing for antagonistic muscles to pull the actin out from between the myosin

Biology (8 decks)

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