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Histopathology > Neoplasia 2 > Flashcards

Neoplasia 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the hallmarks of cancer?

A

Self-sufficiency in growth signals, insensitivity to growth-inhibitory signals, altered cellular metabolism, evasion of apoptosis, limitless replicative potential, sustained angiogenesis, ability to invade and metastasize, and ability to evade the host immune response.

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2
Q

How do tumors become self-sufficient in growth signaling?

A

By proliferating without external stimuli, usually due to oncogene activation.

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3
Q

What is the significance of the Warburg effect in cancer?

A

It refers to the switch to aerobic glycolysis in tumor cells, enabling the synthesis of macromolecules and organelles needed for rapid cell growth.

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4
Q

How do tumor cells evade apoptosis?

A

Through mutations in genes that regulate cell death, such as p53, allowing resistance to programmed cell death.

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5
Q

What allows tumor cells to have limitless replicative potential?

A

Tumors have unrestricted proliferative capacity, avoiding cellular senescence and mitotic catastrophe.

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6
Q

What role does angiogenesis play in tumor growth?

A

Tumor cells induce angiogenesis to ensure a blood supply, bringing nutrients and oxygen while removing waste products.

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7
Q

What is the role of tumor suppressor genes in cancer?

A

They normally inhibit cell growth; mutations in these genes lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation.

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8
Q

What is metastasis?

A

The spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor to distant sites in the body.

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9
Q

What are the routes of metastasis?

A

Lymphatic spread, hematogenous spread, spread along body cavities, and trans-coelomic spread.

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10
Q

How does the tumor microenvironment contribute to cancer progression?

A

It provides signaling cues that facilitate tumor growth, invasion, and immune evasion.

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11
Q

What are oncogenes?

A

Genes that, when mutated, promote uncontrolled cell growth and survival.

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12
Q

What is the role of DNA repair genes in cancer?

A

Defects in DNA repair mechanisms lead to genomic instability, promoting cancer development.

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13
Q

Which cancers are associated with HPV infection?

A

Cervical cancer and some head and neck cancers.

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14
Q

How does chronic inflammation predispose to cancer?

A

Chronic inflammation leads to tissue damage and promotes mutations that can lead to cancer.

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15
Q

What are the common environmental carcinogens?

A

Tobacco smoke, UV radiation, asbestos, and certain chemicals.

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16
Q

What are the microscopic patterns seen in epithelial tumors?

A

Acini, sheets, columns, cords, and islands.

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17
Q

What is the significance of tumor angiogenesis?

A

It allows tumors to grow beyond a certain size by providing a blood supply.

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18
Q

How do growth factors contribute to cancer progression?

A

Growth factors like EGF, FGF, and VEGF promote tumor cell proliferation and angiogenesis.

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19
Q

What is the difference between benign and malignant tumors in terms of growth?

A

Benign tumors grow slowly and are well-circumscribed, while malignant tumors grow rapidly and invade surrounding tissues.

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20
Q

What are the primary mechanisms of local tumor invasion?

A

Invasion involves the destruction of adjacent normal tissues through proteolytic enzymes and mechanical pressure.

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21
Q

How do carcinomas typically spread?

A

Carcinomas usually spread via lymphatic channels.

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22
Q

What is the role of VEGF in cancer?

A

VEGF stimulates the formation of new blood vessels, supporting tumor growth and metastasis.

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23
Q

How does alcohol abuse contribute to cancer risk?

A

It is associated with cancers of the oropharynx, esophagus, and liver (hepatocellular carcinoma).

24
Q

What are precursor lesions, and how do they relate to cancer?

A

Precursor lesions, such as Barrett esophagus and squamous metaplasia, are early changes in tissues that may progress to cancer.

25
Q

What are some genetic alterations seen in cancer?

A

Mutations in oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes, as well as chromosomal abnormalities like amplifications and deletions.

26
Q

What role does obesity play in cancer development?

A

Obesity is linked to an increased risk of several cancers, including breast, colorectal, and prostate cancers.

27
Q

What are the histologic features used to diagnose cancer?

A

Microscopic patterns, histomorphology of neoplastic cells, tumor angiogenesis, and inflammatory reactions.

28
Q

What are sarcomas, and how do they spread?

A

Sarcomas are cancers of mesenchymal origin, and they typically spread via hematogenous routes.

29
Q

What is the importance of the Rb gene in cancer?

A

The Rb gene is a tumor suppressor gene, and its mutation leads to uncontrolled cell cycle progression.

30
Q

What is tumor heterogeneity?

A

It refers to the presence of different genetic and phenotypic variations within a single tumor.

31
Q

How does smoking contribute to cancer risk?

A

Smoking is associated with cancers of the lungs, mouth, esophagus, bladder, and more.

32
Q

What is the concept of monoclonality in tumors?

A

Tumors arise from the clonal expansion of a single precursor cell that has acquired genetic mutations.

33
Q

What is the role of proto-oncogenes in normal cells?

A

Proto-oncogenes regulate normal cell growth and differentiation.

34
Q

How do tumor cells invade surrounding tissues?

A

Tumor cells degrade the extracellular matrix and invade adjacent tissues through proteolytic enzymes.

35
Q

What is the relationship between chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma?

A

Chronic hepatitis, particularly from HBV or HCV infection, increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.

36
Q

What is the clinical significance of grading tumors?

A

Grading assesses the aggressiveness of the tumor based on its microscopic appearance and growth rate.

37
Q

What is tumor stroma, and what role does it play in cancer?

A

Tumor stroma provides structural support and nutrients to tumor cells, often determining the consistency of the tumor.

38
Q

What are the late metastasizing malignancies?

A

Renal cell carcinoma, salivary gland carcinoma, breast carcinoma, carcinoid tumors, and melanoma.

39
Q

What are the typical gross features of malignant tumors?

A

They are often irregular in shape, poorly circumscribed, infiltrative, and may be hemorrhagic or ulcerative.

40
Q

What is the role of immune surveillance in preventing cancer?

A

The immune system can recognize and eliminate abnormal cells, preventing the development of cancer.

41
Q

What are some of the cancers associated with viral infections?

A

HPV is associated with cervical cancer, EBV with Burkitt’s lymphoma, and HBV with hepatocellular carcinoma.

42
Q

How does ultraviolet (UV) radiation cause cancer?

A

UV radiation causes DNA damage, leading to mutations that can result in skin cancers.

43
Q

How do tumor cells develop resistance to chemotherapy?

A

Tumor cells may acquire mutations that render them resistant to the effects of chemotherapeutic agents.

44
Q

What is the significance of central necrosis in tumors?

A

It indicates ischemic cell death within the tumor due to outgrowing its blood supply.

45
Q

What is the relationship between reproductive history and cancer risk?

A

Prolonged exposure to estrogen without progesterone increases the risk of breast and endometrial cancers.

46
Q

How does the loss of growth-inhibitory signals lead to cancer?

A

Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes prevents the regulation of cell proliferation, leading to uncontrolled growth.

47
Q

What are the common histologic features of mesenchymal tumors?

A

Mesenchymal tumors appear in interlacing bundles, fascicles, and whorls.

48
Q

What is the multi-step process of carcinogenesis?

A

It involves the accumulation of complementary mutations over time, leading to cancer growth and progression.

49
Q

What is the clinical relevance of tumor metastasis?

A

Metastasis is responsible for the majority of cancer-related deaths.

50
Q

How does obesity increase the risk of cancer?

A

Obesity is associated with hormonal imbalances, chronic inflammation, and increased levels of growth factors that promote cancer.

51
Q

What is the difference between oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes?

A

Oncogenes promote cell growth, while tumor suppressor genes inhibit it; mutations in either can lead to cancer.

52
Q

What is the significance of chromosomal translocations in cancer?

A

They can activate oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes, contributing to cancer development.

53
Q

What is the relationship between tumor angiogenesis and metastasis?

A

Tumor angiogenesis provides the blood supply necessary for tumor cells to spread to distant sites.

54
Q

What are the major environmental factors affecting cancer incidence?

A

Infectious agents, smoking, alcohol abuse, diet, obesity, reproductive history, and exposure to environmental carcinogens.

55
Q

What is the importance of the p53 gene in cancer?

A

p53 is a tumor suppressor gene that regulates cell cycle arrest and apoptosis; mutations in p53 are common in many cancers.

56
Q

What are the clinical and gross features of benign tumors?

A

Benign tumors are well-circumscribed, encapsulated, spherical, and slow-growing.

57
Q

How do genetic and epigenetic alterations contribute to cancer?

A

They disrupt normal cellular signaling pathways, leading to uncontrolled growth, survival, and metastasis.

Histopathology (7 decks)

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