Nature Of Science Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
Using benefit of hindsight to confirm what we believe
Makes common sense unreliable
Why is logic unreliable
Is can tell us how something should work, but not how and if it actually does.
Eg. Which falls faster? A basketball or bowling ball?
- We would think a bowling ball, however, when tested, they both took the exact same amount of time.
What are the limits of observation
Knowledge of the world comes through our 5 senses, but our senses can be fooled… or the brain may perceive and process sensory information different from person to person
People tend to generalize what they perceive in one situation and apply it to other similar situations
Scientific Principles in Psychology
- Relies on systematic empirical methods of observation.
1) cumulative: science progresses and advances cumulatively; the knowledge base builds on itself.
2) process more than product: an active enterprise. It is a way of exploring how the world works, understanding cause of events, and predicting what might happen under similar conditions in the future.
- it is the process of gaining knowledge that is ever changing, relatively reliable, but always imperfect.
3) an attitude: a way of thinking.
- it involves cognitive skills required to generate, test, and revise theories
- what we believe/theorize about the world and what the world actually like are two different things
- scientists remember that believe is not reality.
Hallmarks of critical and scientific reasoning.
- Question authority. Be skeptical. Test ideas.
- Doubt and skepticism are hall makers of critical and scientific reasonings.
- intellectual honesty: must accept the data in whatever form it presents.
Scientific Method: Observe
- this is the first step
- must examine previous research finding, make a personal observation of the world, find an interest and thus a topic to study
Scientific Method: Predict
- 2nd step of scientific method
- develop expectations about the observed phenomenon
- express these expectations as a theory, defined as a set of related assumptions, from which testable predictions can be made.
- theories organize and explain what we have observed and guide what we will observe
- scientific theories must be tied to real evidence
- hypothesis is a specific, informed, and testable prediction of what kind of outcome should occur under a particular condition.
Scientific Method: Test
- 3rd step in scientific method
- Scientific select a research method, along with appropriate measurement techniques
- choose a plan for the design of the study
- choose tools that will create the condition of the study, and told for measuring response
Scientific Method: Interpret
- 4th step of scientific method
- scientists use mathematical techniques to describe whether it is significant, and closely fits the prediction
Scientific Method: Communicate
- 5th and final step of scientific method
- the results
- scientists generally publish their findings in peer reviewed journals
- this allows other scientists work to be evaluated and recommended on whether or not it should be published
Steps of scientific method
- Observe
- Predict
- Test
- Interpret
- Communicate
Replication
- the repetition of a study to confirm the results
- if the results cannot be replicates it is safe to assume they might have been accidental
Pseudoscience
- practices that appear to be/claim to be science, but don’t use scientific method to come to conclusions
- pseudoscience practitioners:
- make no real advancements in knowledge
- disregard well-known and established facts that contradict their claims
- don’t questions their own assumptions
- offer vague or incomplete explanations of their conclusions
- use unsound logic in making their arguments.
Variable
Anything that changes or varies within or between subjects
Population
The group of people the study is interested in
Samples
Subsets of the population
Descriptive Studies
- researchers don’t generally change any variable or make any predictions
- define a problem of interest and describe the variables of interest
- what is the nature of the phenomenon?
- 3 most common descriptive methods:
1) case study
2) naturalistic observations
3) surveys and interviews
Case study
- To study rare or unusual phenomena in detail
- to generate hypothesis for future research
- doesn’t look at cause and effect
- generally a long term study on a single individual
- cannot generalize results to entire population
Naturalistic Observation
- to describe naturally occurring behaviour
- to generate hypotheses for future research
- lack of control over variables
- doesn’t look at cause and effect
- subjects may act differently if aware they are being observed
- gives researchers a look at behaviour in the real world not a lab setting
Surveys/Interviews
- to describe thoughts or behaviours of large numbers of people
- If sample is random, results will not be generalized and may be biased
- depends on method of administering the survey
- subjects may respond in a way they think is politically or socially acceptable
Archival Research
- researchers who conduct studies by examining previously compiled documents
- eg. Government documents
Physical Traces
- researchers observe physical traces of behaviour in an environment
- examine particular setting for remnants of reflections of the activities or characteristics of people who recently used it.
Representative Sample
The data we collect must come from people who represent the group in which we are interested.
Random Sampling
Every member of the population must have an equal chance of being selected for the study
Social Desirability Bias
- When topics being surveyed are controversial, sensitive, or personal, people are more likely to respond in ways that may not honestly reflect their true beliefs
- might tell researchers what they want to hear
- tendency toward favourable self-presentation
Correlation Design
- measure 2 or more variables and their relationship to one another
- useful when variable cannot be manipulated
- cannot examine causation of relationship
- correlation DOES NOT equal causation
