Learning Flashcards
Learning definition
Enduring changes in behaviour that occur with new experiences
- dependent upon storing information about past experience and using this information to alter behaviour in the future
- learning and memory work together
- learning occurs when information moves from short term to long term memory
Orienting response
- Automatic shift of attention toward a new stimulus
- eg. If a dim light is turned on in a dark room you would immediately turn toward it
Habituation
- a sensory process by which individuals adapt to constant stimulation
- eg. If the dim light stayed on for a while in the dark room, eventually you would get used to it
- result is a change in your response stemming from experience
- learning in its simplest form
Association
-occurs when one piece of information from the environment is link repeatedly with another and the individual begins to connect the two sources of information
Conditioning
- a form of associative learning in which a behaviour becomes more likely because the individual links that behaviour with certain events in its environment
- 2 types of conditioning: classical and operant
- classical: individuals learn from relations between stimuli
- operant: individuals learn from the consequence of their behaviour
Classical conditioning
- occurs when a neutral stimulus becalmed associated with a stimulus to which the learner has an automatic, inborn response.
- Pavlov
Unconditioned response
- the automatic, inborn response to a stimulus
- unlearned
Unconditioned stimulus
- stimulus that always produced the same unconditioned response
- meat is the unconditioned stimulus for salivation the unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
-a previously neutral stimulus that an individual learns to associate with the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
-behaviour that an individual learns to perform when presented with the conditioned stimulus alone
Fundamental criteria of classical conditioning
- Multiple pairings of US and CS (neutral stimulus) are necessary for an association to occurs and for the CS to produce the CR
- The US and CS must be paired very close together in time in order for an association to form
Forward conditioning
Showing the neutral stimulus just before the unconditioned stimulus
Backward conditioning
Showing the neutral stimulus after the unconditioned stimulus
Stimulus generalization
-extension of the association between US and CS to a broad array of similar stimuli
Stimulus discrimination
- occurs when a CR occurs only to the exact CS to which it was conditioned
- opposite of stimulus generalization
Extinction
- weakening and disappearing of a conditioned response
- usually learned once the individual finds out that the CS really has nothing to do with the UR
- occurs when US no longer paired with CS
- just because the CR is extinguished does not mean that relationship between CS and US has disappeared
Sleeping and extinction
-sleep promotes faster extinction of a conditioned fear
Spontaneous recovery
- passing of time can lead to the reappearance of a conditioned stimulus
- never completely extinguishes association, just suppresses it
Higher-order conditioning
-once conditioning has been established, the CR can be elicited by pairing the CS with a new neutral stimulus
Little Albert
- Watson trained Albert to fear white rats and other white fluffy objects
- paired white rats with alarming noise
- eventually used other white fluffy objects creating stimulus generalization
Systematic Desensitization
- behavioural treatments for phobias
- exposing sufferers to their fears with the aim of extinguishing the fear response
Law of effect
-consequences of behaviour increase or decrease the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated
Operant
Behaviour that acts, or operates, on the environment to produce specific consequences
Operant conditioning
- process of learning based upon the consequences of a behaviour
- rewarded behaviour more likely to occur again
Reinforcer
- any internal or external event that increases a behaviour
- have to be things that the learner wants in order for them to influence the likelihood that a behaviour will occur again
- 2 types of reinforcers: primary and secondary
Primary reinforcers
- not learned
- innate and satisfy biological needs
- food, water, sex
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers
- learned by association (usually classical conditioning)
- money, grades, peer approval
Advertisers and classical conditioning
- pairing brand products with pleasant pictures that appeal to inherent wants and needs
- increases participants attitudes of particular brand and makes them more likely to purchase it
Positive reinforcement
- occurs when the presentation or addition of a stimulus to a situation increases the likelihood of a behaviour
- eg. Giving extra credit for turning in homework
Negative reinforcement
- removal of a stimulus to increase behaviour
- stimulus removed is something unpleasant
- eg. Taking Advil - removing the painful stimulus (headache) is negative reinforcement for taking the Advil
- often confused with punishment
Punishment
- any stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behaviour
- can be negative or positive
Positive punishment
- addition of a stimulus that decreases behaviour
- eg. Spanking a child (adding a stimulus) is positive punishment if it decreases the undesirable behaviour
Negative Punishment
- decreases behaviour by removing a stimulus (usually a desirable stimulus)
- eg. Revoking child’s TV privileges for partaking in unacceptable behaviour is a form of negative punishment if it removes the unacceptable behaviour
Skinner box
- simple chamber in which a small animal can move around, with a food dispenser and response lever to trigger food delivery
- determine effort animal is willing to put in to gain a reward (direct measure of motivation)
Shaping
- reinforcement of successive approximation of a desired behaviour
- criteria for positive reinforcement successively becomes closer and closer to desired behaviour
Continuous reinforcement
-when reinforcement follows every operant response
Intermittent reinforcement (partial reinforcement)
- does not occur after every response
- produces stronger behavioural response than continuous reinforcement because of memory and expectation
Fixed ratio schedule
- reinforcement follows a set number of responses
- pattern becomes predictable so response rate is not steady
- usually pause in response rate right after reinforcement occurs, then increase in response rate
Variable ratio schedule
- number of responses needed for reinforcement varies
- produces a steady rate of response
- slot machine
Fixed interval schedule
- reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time
- response patter in which the rate of response immediately following reinforcement is low.
- response rate accelerates as the time of reinforcement approaches
Variable interval schedule
- the first response is reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed
- produce a steady, moderate rate of response
Instinctive drift
- learned behaviour that shifts toward instinctive, unlearned behaviour tendencies
- eg. Raccoon using washing motion on poker chip
Biological constraint model
- some behaviours are inherently more likely to be learned than others
- biology contains, or limits, options so that the adaptive ones are more likely to occur than the maladaptive ones
- constraints on learning have positive evolutionary implications: they guide individuals in a direction that speeds up learning and aids survival for reproductive success
Imprinting
- rapid and innate learning of the characteristic of a caregiver within a very short period of time after birth
- mammals and birds, who are born helpless, need to form a strong bond to a caregiver almost immediately after birth to avoid getting lost or killed
Sensitive period of learning
- evident in imprinting
- a period when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation
- after a certain age, imprinting cannot be learned, unlearned or relearned
Latent learning
- learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and it not demonstrated until later when reinforcement occurs
- tolman reasons that the rats has formed internal cognitive maps from the practice they had received, had no reason to show this until they were rewarded
Enactive learning
Learning by doing
Observational learning
Learning by watching the behaviour of others
Modelling (social learning theory)
Process of observing and imitating behaviours performed by others
Banduras Study of observational learning and aggression
- 4 experimental groups
- No model
- Non-aggressive model
- Aggressive model punished for aggression
- Aggressive model rewarded for aggression
- children who saw videos of group 4 showed much more aggressive tendencies than any other group
