nature of government under the tsars, PG and communists Flashcards
ideology under the tsars and the PG
AII:committed to autocratic rule despite some reformist tendencies, e.g., relaxation of censorship guidelines, reform of education and serfdom. Became more reactionary after 1866 assassination attempt.
AIII: ‘Manifesto on Unshakeable Authority’, published 2 months after the assassination of his father. Influenced by Pobedonostev, manifesto rejected reforms of AII in favour of the divine right of the tsars.
NII: Committed to autocracy, and despite the October Manifesto, NII introduced the Fundamental Laws in 1906 which reaffirmed his commitment to autocracy and supreme power in the hands of the tsar, commanded by God.
PG: based on the concept of Liberal Democracy, with the goal of establishing a Constituent Assembly. However WW1 delayed this.
changes in central government under the tsars and the PG
AII: introduction of the Committee of Ministers in 1861 to replace Imperial Chancellery, each minster had a role for an aspect of affairs ie Interior Minister, but they were all answerable to the tsar. 1881: Alexander planned to introduce an elected consultative assembly but died.
AIII: rejected any introduction of representative democracy such as the CA, and AII’s proposals were rejected. advisory council was also abandoned.
NII:pre-1905 NII followed the centralised model of his father. however after 1905, the Oct Manifesto was released, which confirmed a State Duma, which was an elected chamber, although noble votes had 2x as much weight as workers and peasantry. The First Duma was too radical – demanding land reforms, and was disbanded after 2 months. Successive Dumas were less radical due to changing electoral systems and domination of tsarist supporters.
PG: following the abdication of the Tsars, Russia was ruled by a power-sharing agreement between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet, although the destabilising situation in 1917 meant the authority of the PG ‘melted away’ and the PS took increasing power, i.e., the Order No.1
changes in Local government under the tsars and PG
AII: emancipation of the serfs ended the role of the nobility. In 1864, the introduction of the Zemstva gave an elected membership which was a mixture of landowners, the middle classes and peasants, although heavily stacked in favour of the nobility. The Mir had responsibility for local issues such as education, public health and roads.
AIII: Peasant representation in the Zemstva was further reduced, and control over local affairs ie education was reduced. Land Captains were appointed to enforce local law and order and given further powers to supervise ‘legality of zemstvo institutions’.
NII: Local zemstva and Duma flourished post 1905, and provide important services in health education and transport. During 1905 revolution, a worker’s council (Soviet) emerged in Petersburg and Moscow, which were dominated by SRs and SDs, although they were disbanded post 1905 crackdown, and the introduction of the Fundamental Laws
PG: Soviets were established across Russia following the fall of tsarism, with land being redistributed despite the decrees of the PG. by July the Bolsheviks party was represented by 200,000 members across 162 organisations, with 41,000 in Petrograd alone.
extent of repression and control under the tsars and the PG
AII: Ohkrana introduced, to search for those who would undermine the power of the government. the powers of this body were increased in 1880s to counter growth of terrorist groups and political parties. censorship rules were relaxed slightly and publishers no longer had to pre-submit material to censors, although the government had the right to withdraw publications of ‘dangerous orientation’. This period saw a huge increase in the number of books: 1,020 in 1855 to 1,836 in 1864, including Marx’s Das Kapital in 1872.
AIII: Used Ohkrana to spy on, arrest, and imprison opposition and members of political parties. Clampdown on publications, Officials had to submit material before it was published and papers/journals/educational institutions that were seen as a threat were shut down.
NII: Ohkrana was used to track down SRs and SDs and execute them. Post 1905 the Ohkrana was still used to repress dissent, i.e., the Lena Goldfields massacre. After 1905, NII’s approach to censorship was similar to AII, with the end of prepublication censoring. 1905 Oct Manifesto granted freedom for political parties and trade unions. No. of periodicals increased by 3 between 1900 and 1914, however there was censorship of Russia’s defeat in WW1.
PG: Ohkrana was disbanded as part of a more relaxed policy towards political dissent, with law enforcement given to local officials to manage. Counter Espionage Bureau was set up in Petrograd to weed out Bolsheviks (unsuccessful). There was complete freedom of the press, with radical publications swamping the Petrograd in 1917.
ideology under the communists
Lenin: theoretical commitment to marxism, the October revolution ushered in ‘Dictatorship of the Proletariat’ with worker leaders on behalf of the workers, with the goal of achieving a commie utopia, however, Leninism rejected the gradual approach of revolution suggested by Marx, and in reality, highly centralised state with power and decision making in the hands of the Bolshevik elite; Politburo.
Stalin: a theoretical continuation of marxist-leninism, a dictatorship of the proletariat, although Stalin also invoked ideas such as Russian nationalism and ‘socialism in one country’ and consolidating his grip on the USSR. In reality, a return to autocratic rule under Stalin, (known as the ‘red tsar’).
Khrushchev: A continuation of M-L although his rule was marked by a policy of de-stalinisation, and an attempt to move away from the total autocratic rule and to a more collective from of Party leaders.
changes in central government under Lenin
Lenin: party was promoted as one hat was working to create an equal society under the principle of democratic centralism, with Russian affairs in the hands of politicians in Moscow elected by the Russian people. All-Russian Congress of Soviets and All-Union CoS was supreme governing body. This met twice a year to approve decisions made by the Central Executive Committee, which is theoretically a democratic system however the elimination of opposition in the Civil War meant that it was a one party state. CEC was responsible for running the USSR, dominated by the Politburo, elite group of Bolsheviks, ie Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin. Usually Lenin made decisions but was sometimes overruled ie peace negotiations with Ger.
changes in central government p.2 Stalin and Khrushchev
Stalin: introduced a new constitution in 1936, which restructured central government. A Supreme Soviet of the USSR was given sole power to make laws and appoint ministers. There were elections every 4 years, 1 representative per 30k ppl. However, Communist Party dominated and dissent was not tolerated, politburo was dominated by Stalin, and all decisions were made by him, the ‘vozhd’ (boss). Purges cement his status as undisputed ruler of the 1930s.
Khrushchev: Secret Speech; denounced Stalin’s actions in the purges, revealed criticisms Lenin had written in his will, blamed Stalin for the millions of death in the Great Patriotic War. Although Kchv similarly used his position to gain support in the Party, he never dominated like Stalin but despite this, Kchv still dismissed rebellious politicians ie Bulganin and Beria, and Stalinists ie Molotov who opposed him and a One Leader state stayed until 1991.
Changes in local government under the communists
Lenin:organisation of Bolshevik local government was structured around the soviets. village soviets elected representatives for district soviets, who elected provincial soviets, who elected members of the Sovnarkom, and were represented in the All-Russian Congress. This was in theory democratic, but every level was Soviet dominated.
Stalin: 1936 supposedly more inclusive of the different nationalities of the USSR, granted them more autonomy and developed decision making. Each union republic was allowed its own government structure and national flags. Communist party still dominated the union republics and soviet satellite states; Stalin took personal oversight of leadership and they were answerable to him.
Khrushchev: De-Stalinisation also extended to the granting of greater independence and self-determination to Communist republics. In Poland Gomulka was promoted to head of the government, however, the response to Nagy was to invade with tanks. 105 sovnarkhozy (regional economic councils) were established to give control over production, with republic and district committees overseeing them.
extent of repression and control under the communists: Lenin
Cheka introduced in 1917, main aim to prevent growth of counter-revolutionaries. persecuted middle classes ie kulaks, and Bolshevik political opponent. Key to enforcing war communism during the Civil War, including grain requisitioning, elimination of kulaks and deportations. After the civil war Cheka was replaced with the OGPU. Trotsky used the Red Army to win the civil war with over 5mill conscripts. When the Bolsheviks first seized power, they abolished press freedom. 1921 Agitation and Propaganda department was founded to promote a Bolshevik way of life – surveillance and censorship in schools, cinemas and libraries, books that criticised the rule were labelled as ‘subversive’.
extent of repression and control under the communists: Stalin
Censorship increases. All literary groups were closed down and the Union of Soviet Writers was introduced. Members had to introduce material under the banner of ‘socialist realism’, depicting the struggle of ordinary people to overcome capitalist oppression. This extended to the arts and cinema, which was used to promote the 5YPs.
Reliance on propaganda as a method of control, ie ‘Cult of Personality’. Petrograd - Leningrad, and body was displayed in Red Square. Komosol - youth group who were encouraged to tell tales on those who criticised Stalin. (Hitler Youth)
NKVD was formed in 1934, gathering evidence against rivals and administering gulags. Over 40mill were sent to gulags under Stalin. 1936-38 (Great Terror) NKVD and the army were used to purge any perceived threat. Then 40% of top leaders in the army and NKVD were purged, ie replacing Yezhov with Beria
extent of repression and control under the communists: Khrushchev
Reshaped security services: MVD, criminal acts and civil disorder, KGB focused on internal and external security. Both branches were under jurisdiction of the party congress. Number of political arrests dropped and use of gulags disappeared. 11k revolutionaries in captivity by 1960. 1950s and CW changed role of the Red Army, with the focus on international conflicts. ‘peaceful co-existence’ led to a reduction from 3.6m to 2.4m in the RA.
Censorship was also eased. Books and libraries were encouraged, and by 1949 there were 135k libraries containing 8bill books, a tenfold increase from the 1920s. Criticisms of Stalin were tolerated but not criticisms of the Party.
