Nature Of Government

Question 1

Describe the nature of autocracy as practiced by the Tsars.

Answer 1

Autocracy involved total submission from subjects, with the Tsar acting as a moral judge on behalf of God, supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. It was seen as a practical necessity due to the large population of 60 million, with 82% being peasants.

Question 2

Explain the significance of the Fundamental Laws of 1832 in the context of autocracy.

Answer 2

The Fundamental Laws of 1832 reinforced the belief in autocracy by stating that the Tsar possessed supreme autocratic power, supported by propaganda slogans like ‘Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality’.

Question 3

How did Tsar Alexander II’s reforms impact the perception of autocracy?

Answer 3

Although Alexander II made liberal reforms, he did not waver from the sentiment of autocracy, and an assassination attempt in 1866 made him more committed to autocratic principles.

Question 4

What changes did Alexander III implement in response to liberalism?

Answer 4

Alexander III became more repressive, suppressing the People’s Will and reversing many of the liberal changes made by his predecessor, Alexander II.

Question 5

Define the concept of dictatorship in the context of Marxism.

Answer 5

In Marxism, dictatorship refers to the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat,’ where the working class holds power and the superstructure is shaped to maintain this control.

Question 6

How did Lenin’s approach to Marxism evolve by the 1890s?

Answer 6

By the 1890s, Lenin embraced Marxism and believed that the authorities’ reaction to strikes in St Petersburg demonstrated that the superstructure would always prevail to keep workers in place.

Question 7

Explain the transition from War Communism to the New Economic Policy (NEP) under Lenin.

Answer 7

Lenin replaced War Communism, which was associated with famine, with the NEP, which allowed for some economic freedom and production without restrictions, while still maintaining a dictatorial approach.

Question 8

What characterized Stalin’s version of totalitarianism?

Answer 8

Stalin’s totalitarianism was characterized by a command economy focused on Five-Year Plans and collectivization, along with a highly personalized superstructure to prevent infighting.

Question 9

Describe the impact of de-Stalinization on the Soviet Union.

Answer 9

De-Stalinization aimed to reduce extreme repression and improve the USSR’s image, leading to the release of political prisoners, relaxation of censorship, and erosion of the cult of personality.

Question 10

What was the reaction to Khrushchev’s secret speech during de-Stalinization?

Answer 10

Khrushchev’s secret speech caused an outcry among senior party members and led to attempts by the Anti-Party Group to abolish his position, which would have undermined his power.

Question 11

How did the government structure under the Tsars evolve over time?

Answer 11

The government structure evolved from the Personal Chancellery of his Imperial Majesty, which included legal advisors and secret police, to the Council of Ministers established in 1861, with officials nominated by the Tsar.

Question 12

What were the features of Khrushchev’s leadership during de-Stalinization?

Answer 12

Khrushchev’s leadership featured the release of political prisoners, relaxation of censorship, and a response to unrest through order maintained by the MVD, rather than violence.

Question 13

Describe the role of the Imperial Council of State in the Russian government.

Answer 13

The Imperial Council of State provided advice on legal and financial matters, but the tsar was under no obligation to follow its recommendations.

Question 14

Explain the significance of the October Manifesto in 1905.

Answer 14

The October Manifesto was a response to the pressures for change during the 1905 revolution, leading to a more representative government in the form of the Duma.

Question 15

Define the structure of the Russian government in 1905.

Answer 15

The structure included the Tsar, the Council of Ministers, the State Council (upper chamber), and the Duma (elected lower chamber), with the tsar having the authority to disband the Duma.

Question 16

How did the Russo-Japanese War contribute to political change in Russia?

Answer 16

The Russo-Japanese War increased pressure for change, culminating in the 1905 revolution characterized by assassinations, strikes, and the Bloody Sunday massacre.

Question 17

Discuss the role of the Duma in the Russian government.

Answer 17

The Duma was an elected assembly that represented various social groups and had the power to block proposed legislation, although the tsar could disband it.

Question 18

Explain the impact of Lenin’s April Thesis on the Bolshevik movement.

Answer 18

Lenin’s April Thesis called for the seizure of power by the soviet, facilitating the revival of political groups like the Bolsheviks and garnering support from workers and peasants.

Question 19

What was the outcome of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets for the Bolsheviks?

Answer 19

The Bolsheviks gained a clear mandate after the right-wing SRs and Mensheviks walked out of the Congress.

Question 20

Describe the significance of the Decree on Land issued by the Bolshevik government.

Answer 20

The Decree on Land sanctioned the requisition of private land by peasants, which could only be executed by village soviets, winning some support from opponents.

Question 21

How did the Bolshevik government respond to the Constituent Assembly in November 1917?

Answer 21

The Bolsheviks failed to win a majority in the Constituent Assembly, which Lenin claimed was an expression of the old regime, leading to its closure after one day.

Question 22

Explain the concept of democratic centralism as practiced by the Bolsheviks.

Answer 22

Democratic centralism involved the people agreeing to be led by a cadre based in Moscow until a genuine workers’ government could be established.

Question 23

What was the structure of the Soviet government under Stalin?

Answer 23

The structure included the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which elected the Sovnarkom and had the sole power to make laws, along with the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities, where each republic was allowed 25 members.

Question 24

Discuss the role of the Cheka in the Bolshevik government.

Answer 24

The Cheka was established to prevent the emergence of counter-revolutionary movements during the Bolshevik regime.

Question 25

How did the Stalin Constitution of 1936 address dissent within the Communist Party?

Answer 25

The Stalin Constitution, Article 126, reinforced that dissent from party lines was never tolerated, emphasizing strict adherence to party directives.

Question 26

What changes did the Supreme Soviet introduce regarding the republics within the USSR?

Answer 26

The republics were given the right to administer their own educational systems and had the power to break away from the USSR.

Question 27

Describe the membership growth of the Bolshevik Party from 1921 to 1928.

Answer 27

Bolshevik Party membership grew from 730,000 in 1921 to 1 million in 1928.

Question 28

Explain the significance of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk for the Bolshevik government.

Answer 28

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March 1918, laid the foundations for an armistice and marked a significant diplomatic achievement for the Bolshevik government.

Question 29

Describe the structure and purpose of Zemstva established in 1864.

Answer 29

Zemstva were local government bodies in Russia, created in 1864, with elected membership that included landowners, urban dwellers, and peasants. Their purpose was to provide local governance and address community needs, with electors selected based on property qualifications.

Question 30

Explain the significance of the Duma established in 1870.

Answer 30

The Duma was the urban equivalent of the Zemstva, established in 1870, with even stricter entry requirements that excluded the urban proletariat. It represented a step towards urban self-governance but limited participation.

Question 31

Define the 'Third Element' in the context of local governance in Russia before 1917.

Answer 31

The 'Third Element' refers to the liberal voices of teachers, lawyers, and doctors within the Zemstva who advocated for the central government to be restructured along the lines of the Zemstva and Duma, promoting local representation and reform.

Question 32

How did local government change after 1917 in Russia?

Answer 32

After 1917, the Zemstva and Duma were abolished, and local government was dominated by soviets, which were councils representing workers and soldiers, reflecting a shift towards a more centralized and revolutionary governance structure.

Question 33

Explain the origins and role of the Cheka established by the Bolsheviks in December 1917.

Answer 33

The Cheka was established by the Bolsheviks in December 1917 to combat counterrevolutionaries and maintain state security. It used terror and repression against perceived enemies, particularly targeting Socialist Revolutionary (SR) members after an assassination attempt on Lenin.

Question 34

Describe the methods of repression used by the Okhrana in the late 19th century.

Answer 34

The Okhrana, the secret police of Russia, was used as a tool for spying, arresting, imprisoning, and exiling opposition. It operated with a lower profile during the stability of the 1890s but became more active during the 1905 revolution, employing agents provocateurs and executing dissenters.

Question 35

What was the impact of the Red Terror implemented by the Cheka?

Answer 35

The Red Terror, implemented by the Cheka, resulted in the execution of between 500,000 to 1,000,000 people, targeting individuals based on their identity and political affiliations, and was part of the broader War Communism policies.

Question 36

How did the NKVD function during Stalin's regime?

Answer 36

The NKVD served as a key instrument of repression during Stalin's regime, enforcing a permanent state of terror, conducting purges, and overseeing the mass incarceration of over 18 million people in Gulags.

Question 37

Explain the significance of the Doctors' Plot in 1952-53.

Answer 37

The Doctors' Plot was a fabricated conspiracy in which Stalin's medical staff were accused of attempting to poison him. It exemplified the paranoia and repressive tactics of Stalin's regime, leading to arrests and further purges.

Question 38

Describe the changes in the secret police from the Cheka to the NKVD.

Answer 38

The Cheka was disbanded after the Civil War and replaced by the OGPU, which was less brutal. The NKVD later emerged as a more permanent form of terror under Stalin, responsible for widespread repression and purges.

Question 39

What were the main methods of repression used by the Russian government during this period?

Answer 39

The main methods of repression included the use of secret police, the army, propaganda, and censorship to control the population and suppress dissent.

Question 40

How did the role of the NKVD evolve during World War II?

Answer 40

During World War II, the NKVD was responsible for policing ethnic minorities and carried out mass deportations, such as the Kalmyks from the northwest of the Caspian to Siberia, reflecting its role in maintaining state control during wartime.

Question 41

Describe the changes in the structure of the MVD and KGB during de-Stalinisation.

Answer 41

The MVD was reorganised into two departments: one refined MVD dealing with ordinary criminal acts and disorder, while the KGB focused on internal and external security.

Question 42

Explain the significance of the Gulags by 1960.

Answer 42

By 1960, the use of Gulags had decreased significantly, with only 11,000 counterrevolutionaries remaining in captivity.

Question 43

Define the role of the army during the Crimean War.

Answer 43

The army, consisting mostly of 1.4m peasants with nobility as officers, revealed deficiencies during the Crimean War, prompting reforms.

Question 44

How did Russification under Alexander III affect the army's role?

Answer 44

Russification under Alexander III enhanced the army's role as a peace-keeping force and regulator of regional frontiers.

Question 45

Explain the impact of Bloody Sunday 1905 on the army's reputation.

Answer 45

The excessive use of force by the army during Bloody Sunday 1905 caused public outrage and damaged its reputation.

Question 46

Describe the army's involvement in the February Revolution of 1917.

Answer 46

In February 1917, the army dealt with protests forcefully, but an estimated 150,000 members of the Petrograd Garrison supported the revolution.

Question 47

What was the role of the Red Army during the Civil War?

Answer 47

The Red Army was instrumental in winning the Civil War, growing from virtually non-existent at the start to 5 million conscripts by the end.

Question 48

How did Stalin's policies affect military leadership?

Answer 48

Stalin viewed military leadership as a threat, leading to the Great Purge in 1936-38, where 40% of the top military echelon disappeared.

Question 49

Explain the military's orders during World War II.

Answer 49

During World War II, troops were ordered to fight to the last drop of blood, reflecting the high stakes of the conflict.

Question 50

Describe the treatment of military leaders from 1945 to 1953.

Answer 50

From 1945 to 1953, military leaders were treated with suspicion, exemplified by Marshal Zhukov's removal from the Party Central Committee.

Question 51

How did the role of armed forces change under Khrushchev?

Answer 51

Under Khrushchev, the role of armed forces became more focused on international conflicts, and the army was reduced in size from 3.6 million to 2.4 million.

Question 52

Define the concept of glasnost under Alexander II.

Answer 52

Glasnost under Alexander II referred to a relaxation of censorship, allowing for more publications, although the government retained the right to withdraw certain materials.

Question 53

Explain the censorship policies under Alexander III.

Answer 53

Under Alexander III, there was a clampdown on publications, with officials required to censor written material before it was published.

Question 54

Describe the expansion of the press during Nicholas II's reign.

Answer 54

Nicholas II reverted to glasnost, leading to a threefold increase in the number of periodicals from 1900 to 1914, with newspapers aimed at the proletariat emerging.

Question 55

What measures did the Bolsheviks take regarding press freedom after seizing power?

Answer 55

After seizing power, the Bolsheviks abolished press freedom, implementing the Decree on the Press in November 1917 to close newspapers supporting counter-revolution.

Question 56

Explain the role of the Agitation and Propaganda Department established in 1921.

Answer 56

The Agitation and Propaganda Department was founded to promote an idealised picture of Russian life, overseeing schools, cinemas, radio, and libraries to prevent counter-revolutionary material.

Question 57

How did censorship evolve under Stalin's regime?

Answer 57

Censorship increased under Stalin, with all literary groups closed in 1932 and writers required to join the Union of Soviet Writers.

Question 58

Describe the impact of World War II on information control in the Soviet Union.

Answer 58

During World War II, Stalin was concerned with controlling information about the rest of the world, leading to efforts to doctor news and reports.

Question 59

Describe the role of censorship in the Soviet Union under Khrushchev.

Answer 59

Censorship eased during Khrushchev's leadership, allowing for a significant increase in published works, with 65,000 books per year by the late 1950s and a total of 135,000 libraries by 1959.

Question 60

Explain the significance of television during Khrushchev's era.

Answer 60

Television played a major role in celebrating the USSR's achievements, particularly in the Space Race, with millions watching the five-hour program celebrating Yuri Gagarin's space voyage in 1961.

Question 61

Define the concept of 'Cult of Personality' as it relates to Soviet leaders.

Answer 61

The 'Cult of Personality' involved the glorification of leaders like Lenin and Stalin, portraying them as heroic figures through imagery, statues, and public displays, such as Lenin's body in the mausoleum.

Question 62

How did propaganda manifest in the Tsarist regime?

Answer 62

The Tsarist regimes promoted the Romanovs through pamphlets, portraits, photographs, and staged events, notably during the 300-year anniversary of the Romanov dynasty in 1913.

Question 63

Discuss the impact of the Stakhanovite movement in the Soviet workplace.

Answer 63

The Stakhanovite movement aimed to raise productivity in the workplace by promoting exemplary workers as models for others to emulate.

Question 64

Explain the reforms implemented by the Tsars to appease opposition.

Answer 64

Tsars implemented political, social, and economic reforms, such as freeing serfs and introducing the Duma, in hopes of reducing unrest and opposition.

Question 65

Describe the nature of opposition to the Tsarist regime in the 19th century.

Answer 65

Opposition included various political parties and groups, such as the Populists and the People's Will, which sought to challenge the Tsarist authority through both peaceful and violent means.

Question 66

What was the role of newspapers in Soviet propaganda?

Answer 66

Newspapers like Pravda and Izvestiya served primarily as propaganda tools, used by Stalin to promote the achievements of the Five-Year Plans.

Question 67

How did the Bolsheviks utilize slogans in their propaganda efforts?

Answer 67

The Bolsheviks used impactful slogans such as 'Peace, Bread and Land' and 'All Power to the Soviets' to rally support and convey their political messages.

Question 68

Explain the significance of the Tchaikovsky Circle in the context of revolutionary literature.

Answer 68

The Tchaikovsky Circle, established in 1868-69, was a literary society that organized the distribution of revolutionary literature, influencing political thought among Russian intellectuals.

Question 69

Discuss the effectiveness of the SRs as a political force before the October Revolution.

Answer 69

The Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) were a significant threat to Tsarist rule, advocating for the improvement of conditions for the poorest and engaging in direct action, including political killings.

Question 70

How did the political landscape change after the 1905 Revolution in Russia?

Answer 70

After the 1905 Revolution, political parties were legalized, although they faced restrictions and were ultimately banned again in 1921.

Question 71

Describe the impact of the June 1862 fires in St. Petersburg.

Answer 71

The series of fires in St. Petersburg, attributed to the Young Russia group, destroyed over 2000 shops but resulted in little significant political change.

Question 72

What was the aim of the Populists in the 19th century Russia?

Answer 72

The Populists aimed to politically educate peasants and promote social change, influenced by Marxist ideas, and organized efforts like 'Going to the People' to engage with rural communities; involved 4000 uni students.

Question 73

Explain the relationship between the Communists' reforms and their repressive measures.

Answer 73

The Communists combined reforms like War Communism, collectivization, and Five-Year Plans with repressive measures to ensure the successful implementation of their policies.

Question 74

How did the youth organizations in the Soviet Union change from 1929 to 1941?

Answer 74

Membership in special youth organizations increased fivefold from 1929 to 1941, reflecting the regime's focus on indoctrinating the younger generation.

Question 75

Describe the focus of Social Democrats (SDs) in relation to working-class consciousness.

Answer 75

SDs emphasized the need to encourage working-class consciousness, focusing on improving pay and reducing working hours, as few workers had time to engage with Marxist theory.

Question 76

Explain the role of Kadets and Octobrists after 1905.

Answer 76

Kadets and Octobrists called for a constitutional monarchy, with the Kadets being the intellectual arm of the liberal movement and supporting the October Manifesto.

Question 77

Define the terms Westernisers and Slavophiles in the context of the intelligentsia.

Answer 77

Westernisers wanted to adopt Western ways, while Slavophiles favored a superior 'Russian' path, with the attraction of Slavophiles diminishing in the 1890s due to industrialization.

Question 78

How did the experience of the 1891-2 famine impact demands for change in Russia?

Answer 78

The inaction of the tsar during the famine left the zemstva responsible for relief, which increased demands for change.

Question 79

Explain the division within the opposition before 1917.

Answer 79

The opposition was divided between those who wanted change within the system and those who sought to overthrow it.

Question 80

What were the Fundamental Laws of 1906 and their significance?

Answer 80

The Fundamental Laws of 1906 remained intact until World War I, representing the legal framework of the Russian state.

Question 81

Describe the opposition to the Provisional Government.

Answer 81

The Bolsheviks dominated the opposition, with growing strength from workers' committees that were prepared to listen to groups like the Bolsheviks.

Question 82

What was the outcome of the elections to the Constituent Assembly?

Answer 82

The SRs won 370 seats while the Bolsheviks won 175, leading Lenin to declare the elections rigged and end the assembly.

Question 83

How did Lenin's decision to withdraw Russia from WW1 affect his standing?

Answer 83

Lenin's decision strengthened reactions against him, with left SRs viewing him as a traitor to the revolution and a German collaborator.

Question 84

Explain the impact of the Civil War on opposition groups.

Answer 84

The Civil War provided an opportunity to destroy opposition, such as the White armies, and the existence of Green armies indicated the war's nature was also about nationalities and regions.

Question 85

What characterized the one-party state in Russia from 1921 to 1964?

Answer 85

From 1921 to 1964, Russia was characterized by a one-party state, limiting political pluralism and opposition.

Question 86

Describe the nature of 'inside' opposition during Lenin's rule.

Answer 86

'Inside' opposition included figures like Kamenev, Zinoviev, and Rykov, who called for coalitions with other socialist groups, while Trotsky opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Question 87

What was War Communism and how did Lenin respond to its perception?

Answer 87

War Communism was considered harsh by some, leading Lenin to concede to change and introduce the New Economic Policy (NEP), which heightened divisions.

Question 88

Explain the power struggle within the Bolshevik party regarding the NEP.

Answer 88

There was a dispute between left and right Bolsheviks over the continuation of the NEP, with many demanding more open democracy.

Question 89

How did Stalin manipulate debates within the Bolshevik party?

Answer 89

Stalin was able to manipulate debates and individuals to consolidate his power during the power struggle.

Question 90

What were the consequences of the purges in the mid-1930s?

Answer 90

The purges led to a significant reduction in party membership, with many members exiled or executed for resisting collectivization and industrialization. Party members who failed to implement collectivization adequately or who disagreed lost their party card, reducing membership by a tenth. By the mid-30s, a further third of members were gone who were seen to be resisting the pace of industrialization and collectivization.

Question 91

Describe the state of political criticism under Khrushchev.

Answer 91

Under Khrushchev, there was an end to purging and a greater tolerance of political criticism compared to previous regimes.

Question 92

How did peasant opposition vary in commitment and involvement?

Answer 92

Peasant opposition varied based on location and status, with older, more educated individuals being more involved, though they seldom showed allegiance to specific parties.

Question 93

What were the typical responses to large-scale uprisings by peasants?

Answer 93

Large-scale uprisings were taken seriously and often led to significant reforms, but they were also dealt with by force, particularly when related to land distribution and access to food.

Question 94

Describe the impact of emancipation on peasant attitudes in Russia.

Answer 94

Emancipation unleashed disturbances among peasants, leading to a quiet period until the 1890s when revolts were quelled by land captains. The peak of unrest occurred between 1900-1907 due to issues with redemption payments, resulting in more inventive and politically intelligent responses from the peasants.

Question 95

Explain the significance of the Black Earth region revolts in 1906-1907.

Answer 95

The Black Earth region revolts were significant as they were put down with force, highlighting the tensions between peasants and authorities. Stolypin's land reforms were implemented in response, which seemed to pacify them temporarily.

Question 96

How did World War I affect peasant attitudes in Russia?

Answer 96

World War I led to protests over high food prices and increased pressure from rising demand in urban areas. In 1917, peasants launched attacks on landowners and engaged in vigilantism, indicating a more organized and aggressive stance against their grievances.

Question 97

Define the impact of the Civil War on peasant attitudes.

Answer 97

The Civil War shifted peasant attitudes as they sought to improve their position, forming quasi-independent armies that sympathized with both the Bolsheviks and the White armies. Resentment grew towards grain requisitioning, leading to the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) as a response.

Question 98

Describe the consequences of collectivization on peasant unrest.

Answer 98

Collectivization ignited significant unrest among peasants, resulting in thousands of deaths. It led to the loss of the mir as an organizing institution, and many peasants showed dissent by slaughtering their cattle and horses, refusing to cooperate with the state.

Question 99

Explain the stability of agricultural policies under Khrushchev.

Answer 99

Under Khrushchev, there was little unrest among peasants, but agricultural policies were not particularly successful, leading to ongoing challenges in the agricultural sector.

Question 100

How did the treatment of workers change during industrialization in Russia?

Answer 100

During industrialization, workers became increasingly valuable to both regimes, receiving more regular hours and better pay compared to agricultural work, although conditions remained poor. There was no factory inspectorate until 1882, and the ten-hour working day was not established until 1914.

Question 101

Describe the tactics used by workers to express their grievances before the 1880s.

Answer 101

Before the 1880s, workers used localized and small-scale riots and strikes to express their grievances. However, these tactics grew in size and threat over time, culminating in significant strikes such as the 1885 strike at Morozov dye works, which involved over 8000 workers.

Question 102

Explain the impact of the 1905 legalization of trade unions on worker organization.

Answer 102

The legalization of trade unions in 1905 allowed workers to organize more effectively, although economic depression in 1907 and rising unemployment reduced opportunities for collective action. Strikes continued, particularly after events like the shooting of unarmed demonstrators at the Lena goldfields in April 1912.

Question 103

Describe the effects of the Civil War on the workforce in Russia.

Answer 103

The Civil War resulted in many deaths and shifted peasants to industrial work, leading to a less effective workforce. In the 1920s and 1930s, workers became relatively docile, generally accepting the Five-Year Plans (FYPs) and Stalin's control over worker behavior.

Question 104

How did World War II influence industrial relations in Russia?

Answer 104

During World War II, there were no strikes, indicating a period of stability in industrial relations despite the pressures faced by workers.

Question 105

Explain the significance of the Novocherhassk strike in 1962.

Answer 105

The Novocherhassk strike in 1962 was significant as it was a response to food shortages and rising prices, resulting in twenty deaths and the execution of several ringleaders. It highlighted the tensions between the state and workers due to declining living standards.

Question 106

Describe the changes in the average working day in the 1960s in Russia.

Answer 106

In the 1960s, the average working day was reduced to seven hours, and there was an official inspection and administration of working conditions, although the promised dictatorship of the proletariat and full worker control over production never materialized.

Question 107

Explain the overall impact of living standards on workers in Russia.

Answer 107

Overall, living standards for workers in Russia fell continuously, leading to repression and dissatisfaction, despite some improvements in working conditions and hours.

Question 108

What were the key features of the 1864 legal reforms in Russia?

Answer 108

The 1864 legal reforms introduced a jury system for criminal cases, created a hierarchy of courts for different cases, improved pay for judges, and allowed public attendance in court proceedings.

Question 109

What significant judicial change occurred in 1877 regarding political cases?

Answer 109

In 1877, a new department of the Senate was established to try political cases, although an assassination attempt related to this change ultimately failed.

Question 110

What changes were made to the police and judicial system in 1881?

Answer 110

In 1881, the police were centralized under the minister for the interior, special courts for political cases were established, and justices of the peace were replaced by land captains.

Question 111

How did the criminal code of 1921 impact the use of terror in Russia?

Answer 111

The criminal code of 1921 legalized the use of terror as a means to deter crime, marking a significant shift in the judicial approach post-1917.