Impact Of Dictorial Regimes On Economy/Society Flashcards
Describe the emphasis of industrialization under dictatorial regimes.
The emphasis was on heavy industry rather than light industry, aiming to catch up with Western economies that had progressed through the development of iron and coal industries.
Explain the relationship between agricultural activity and industrial development in Russia.
The nature of Russian society and its agricultural activity affected the development of industry, as there was a recognition of the threat of peasant unrest that could be mitigated by moving rural workers into industrial jobs.
Define the role of Reutern as finance minister in the context of industrialization.
Reutern’s appointment marked a commitment to state involvement in industry, focusing on railway construction, attracting foreign technical expertise, and employing foreign investment capital.
How did railway construction impact the industrial sector in Russia during the 19th century?
Railway construction significantly boosted the industrial sector, with a sevenfold increase in track from 1862 to 1878, contributing to the doubling of industrial output and providing a cushion during the European economic depression from 1873 to 1882.
Explain the significance of the Ludwig Loop and the Nobel brothers in Russian industrialization.
The Ludwig Loop helped develop the textile industry, while the Nobel brothers were responsible for the growth of the modern oil industry in Russia.
Describe the changes in railway construction from 1837 to 1880.
The first railway was completed in 1837, and by 1880, 94% of railway construction was in private hands, with significant increases in track length and technical standards.
What reforms were implemented after the death of Alexander II regarding state ownership of railways?
Bunge, as finance minister, oversaw greater state ownership of railways, increasing it to 69% by 1911, along with fiscal amendments like the abolition of the Salt Tax and the establishment of the Peasant Land Bank.
How did the Great Spurt affect agricultural production and industrialization in Russia?
By 1893, the Great Spurt focused on agricultural production while Witte’s industrialization efforts were mainly at the expense of agriculture, leading to increased foreign loans and investment in heavy industry.
Explain the impact of the rouble being placed on the gold standard in 1897.
Placing the rouble on the gold standard in 1897 instilled confidence in the value of the currency, facilitating foreign investment and economic stability.
What were the effects of Witte’s industrial policies?
(coal/steel, railway, foreign investment, income from industry)
Witte’s policies resulted in coal production doubling and steel production increasing sevenfold, along with significant growth in railway length from 17,000 miles in 1891 to 31,000 miles in 1901. Foreign capital investment grew by 120% per annum from 1893 to 1898, and income from industry rose to 161 million roubles by 1897.
Critique Witte’s approach to industrialization in Russia.
Witte’s approach was criticized for neglecting the engineering and textiles sectors, relying heavily on foreign capital which was seen as dangerous, and for the costly and unimpressive railway system.
Describe the state of Russia’s railway system compared to Germany in 1914.
In 1914, Russia had eleven times fewer miles of track than Germany.
Explain the impact of agricultural neglect from Witte on Russian society before WW1.
The neglect of agriculture led to rural discontent and increased the chances of starvation.
How did industrial output in Russia change from 1909 to 1913 with Stolypin as the finance minister?
From 1909 to 1913, industrial output in Russia increased by 7% a year, while the Gross National Product (GNP) grew by 3.5%.
Define the economic challenges faced by Russia at the start of WW1.
At the start of WW1, Russia’s overall production levels lagged behind competitors, with coal production at only 10% of Britain’s and GNP per capita at 20% of Britain’s.
What were the consequences of the Russian economy during WW1?
The economy struggled to meet the demands of the armed forces, leading to increased taxes, abandonment of the gold standard, and a fourfold increase in the price of fuel and food within the first two years.
Describe the impact of the Civil War on industrial production in Russia.
The Civil War nullified any positive impact of State Capitalism, causing industrial production to fall significantly, with coal production dropping from 29 million tonnes in 1913 to 8.9 million in 1921.
Explain the effects of inflation during the Civil War in Russia.
By October 1920, inflation had rendered the rouble worth only 1% of its 1917 value, leading to the abandonment of the currency.
What was War Communism and its main features?
War Communism involved state capitalism alongside grain requisitioning, nationalisation of larger enterprises, and a state monopoly of markets, which caused unrest among individuals.
How did War Communism affect agricultural production?
War Communism led to forced requisitioning of agricultural produce, creating a disincentive for peasants to grow more than needed, resulting in starvation in rural areas.
Define the New Economic Policy (NEP) and its significance.
The NEP involved the denationalisation of small-scale enterprises and a return to private ownership, which rejuvenated trade and allowed peasants to sell surpluses in local markets.
What were the outcomes of the NEP on industrial and agricultural production?
Under the NEP, industrial output increased rapidly, and the supply of food grew at a rate exceeding demand, leading to a fall in prices.
Explain the perceived contradictions of the NEP in relation to communist ideals.
The NEP was seen as a betrayal of the October Revolution and communist ideals due to its emphasis on private ownership and market mechanisms.
Describe the focus of Stalin’s First Five-Year Plan.
The First Five-Year Plan focused on increases in heavy industry output, development of the engineering industry, and expansion of tractor works to stimulate agriculture.
What were the limitations of Stalin’s First Five-Year Plan?
The First Five-Year Plan neglected consumer industries, leading to a shortage of skilled workers and the disappearance of specialist workshops.
What achievements were made during the Second Five-Year Plan?
The Second Five-Year Plan saw significant growth in the electricity industry and the establishment of over 4500 new enterprises.
Identify the challenges faced during the Second Five-Year Plan.
Targets were scaled down, and consumer industries continued to decline, with slow expansion in the oil industry.
What were the goals of the Third Five-Year Plan?
The Third Five-Year Plan aimed to improve production and productivity in heavy industry and enhance armaments production.
What was a major diversion of resources during the Third Five-Year Plan?
A major diversion of resources during the Third Five-Year Plan was towards the war effort.
What was achieved by the Fourth Five-Year Plan in terms of production levels?
The Fourth Five-Year Plan managed to reach pre-war production levels within three years.
Explain the shift to modern staples in the economy during the Sixth Five-Year Plan (implemented in 1956).
The shift to modern staples, such as plastics and synthetics, resulted in a greater prevalence of consumer goods, reflecting changing consumer demands and industrial capabilities; targets over-optimistic.
Define the characteristics of the seventh five-year plan (K).
The seventh phase saw an increase in the range of goods produced, more realistic targets set for production, and a slowdown in overall growth.
How did Stalin view the tsars in relation to workers?
Stalin believed that the tsars were enemies of the workers and advocated for a system that provided more worker autonomy, encouraging them to see themselves as key to the success of the economy.
Explain the issues with the first and second economic plans under Stalin.
The first and second plans did not run their full courses, with the government exaggerating achievements while workers struggled to meet unrealistic targets, which Stalin often revised upwards.
Describe the government’s approach to agriculture during industrialization.
The government viewed agriculture as subservient to industry, focusing on reforms to increase food production and productivity to support the urban proletariat.
What was the Stolypin reform and its intended outcome?
The Stolypin reform aimed to use land redistribution to create a class of more capable and educated peasants, strengthening the rural economy through the Peasant Land Bank. However, it backfired as a wealthier class of peasants emerged who weren’t satisfied with the reform, as the best land remained inaccessible. By 1914, 2 million peasants left village communes, leading to a shortage of rural labor.
How did the Decree on Land affect peasants?
The Decree on Land, along with War Communism and policies towards kulaks, led to significant changes in land ownership and farming practices, often resulting in hardship for peasants.
Explain the consequences of collectivization in the late 1920s.
Collectivization led to widespread famine from 1927-1928, with Stalin claiming exaggerated figures of collectivization, while resistance from peasants manifested in migration and other forms.
What was dekulakisation and its impact on kulaks?
Dekulakisation involved the confiscation of property from kulaks, leading to mass deportations and executions, as kulaks were scapegoated for agricultural policy failures. Between 1928 and 1930, 1 to 3 million were deported, and 30,000 were shot.
Describe the state of collectivization by 1941.
By 1941, 98% of peasants worked on collective farms, although these farms were still unpopular among the peasantry, who were deprived of the right to earn extra income.
How did Khrushchev’s policies differ from Stalin’s regarding agriculture?
Khrushchev emphasized increasing production through state farms, often at the expense of smaller collective farms, reflecting a shift in agricultural policy.
Explain the significance of the 1932-1934 famine in the context of collectivization.
The famine of 1932-1934 disrupted agricultural development and highlighted the failures of collectivization, leading to further discontent among the peasantry.
Describe the impact of the Virgin Land campaign on agricultural productivity in the Soviet Union.
The Virgin Land campaign aimed to increase the amount of land cultivated, adding 70 million acres for wheat by 1964. However, it led to overuse of land, neglect of crop rotation, and soil erosion, resulting in a disastrous harvest in 1963 with a 37 million tonne drop in grain production, contributing to Khrushchev’s downfall.
Explain the social changes that occurred in Russia between 1870 and 1914.
During this period, Russia experienced significant population growth from 86 million to 166 million, driven by increased birth rates due to industrialization. This led to urbanization and a rise in the middle class, while the nobility declined. The emancipation of serfs allowed greater freedom in marriage and family structure.
How did industrialization influence urbanization in Russia?
Industrialization created job opportunities in cities, prompting rural populations to migrate to urban areas for work, thus leading to significant urbanization.
Define the changes in education under the Tsars in Russia.
Under the Tsars, education saw increased control by the government, with primary education placed in the hands of zemstva and later the Ministry of Education in 1887. The number of primary schools rose significantly, but access was limited, especially for lower-class children in secondary education.
Explain the educational reforms introduced by the Communists in the 1930s.
The Communists made primary education compulsory to age 12, with 18 million children attending by 1930. The curriculum revolved around basic literacy and numeracy skills, and the teaching of religious scriptures disappeared. For secondary education, polytechnic schools replaced bourgeois gymnasia, and by the 1930s, there was a return to mixed provision with greater emphasis on vocational education, resulting in 6.9 million attending by 1932. Stalin scrapped school fees in 1939, while Khrushchev reverted to the polytechnic model and created specialist academies.
Describe the living conditions of urban populations in Russia by the end of the 19th century.
By the end of the 19th century, only 15% of the population lived in towns and cities, indicating that urban living conditions were still developing and that the majority of the population remained rural.
What were the effects of the 1917 civil marriage reforms on Russian society?
The civil marriage reforms after October 1917 allowed peasants to marry freely, introduced divorce as an option, and aimed to strengthen family units through various incentives, reflecting a shift towards more modern social structures.
How did the status of the nobility change by 1914 in Russia?
By 1914, the nobility experienced a decline, having lost millions of acres of land, while a new middle class of industrialists, merchants, and professionals began to rise.
Discuss the significance of the 1955 removal of abortion restrictions in the Soviet Union.
The removal of abortion restrictions in 1955 marked a significant shift in reproductive rights, reflecting changing attitudes towards women’s health and autonomy in the Soviet Union.
What was the role of the bureaucratic nomenklatura in the Soviet government?
The bureaucratic nomenklatura dominated the Soviet government, controlling appointments and decision-making processes, which created a distinct class within the worker population that received special privileges.
Describe the housing situation in urban areas by 1914.
By 1914, over 1000 towns had approximately 2 million buildings, with more than 50% of housing constructed from fire-prone wood. Only about 200 towns had piped water, and 38 towns had sewer systems.
Explain the impact of urbanization on public health in early 20th century Russia.
Urbanization led to rapid-spreading diseases, exemplified by the cholera outbreak in St Petersburg in 1910, which resulted in 100,000 deaths.
How did the housing conditions for workers near industrial cities manifest?
Workers’ housing was overcrowded, hastily built, and insanitary, reflecting the poor living conditions in industrial cities.
Define the Decree on Leace of 1917 regarding housing.
The Decree on Leace focused on the Bolsheviks’ intentions for housing, which included handing private dwellings in towns and cities over to the proletariat, leading to short-lived improvements.
What changes did Stalin implement regarding housing allocations?
Stalin reversed many improvements made earlier, allocating space to families or individuals rather than rooms, which led to overcrowding becoming the norm.
Describe the living conditions in Moscow during the 1930s.
In Moscow during the 1930s, multiple families often lived in a single room, highlighting severe overcrowding.
What was the impact of World War II on housing in Russia?
World War II resulted in 25 million people becoming homeless due to the destruction caused by the war.
How did Khrushchev’s policies affect housing stock between 1955 and 1964?
Khrushchev doubled the housing stock during this period, abandoned communal living principles, and favored the emergence of housing cooperatives that benefited the professional classes.
Describe the typical rural housing conditions in Russia.
Average rural housing consisted of single-room wooden huts that were overcrowded, cold, damp, poorly constructed, and controlled by peasants.
What were the characteristics of special housing blocks on collective farms under Stalin?
Special housing blocks on collective farms were built quickly and cheaply, leading to overcrowded conditions and health problems.
Explain the factors contributing to famines in Russia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Famines were caused by adverse weather, panic selling of grain, disruption during WW1, and policies of exporting grain that exacerbated shortages.
What were the consequences of the 1891 famine in Russia?
The 1891 famine, caused by adverse weather and panic selling, led to shortages and resulted in over 350,000 deaths.
How did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk affect food shortages in Russia?
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk resulted in the loss of valuable grain-producing areas in Ukraine, contributing to food shortages during 1914-18.
What were the causes and effects of the 1921 famine in Russia?
The 1921 famine was caused by severe winters, droughts, and destruction of transport infrastructure during the Civil War, leading to more than 5 million deaths.
Describe the impact of collectivization on food production in Ukraine during the early 1930s.
Collectivization led to repression of those resisting it, impossibly high requisition levels, and resulted in approximately 8 million people starving to death in Ukraine.
What was the state of food production by 1935 in Russia?
By 1935, food production was increasing, but total food output was still less than pre-WW1 levels, and the diet of workers had worsened significantly.
How did World War II affect agricultural policies in Russia?
During World War II, collectivization was relaxed, and the removal of private land restrictions temporarily encouraged food production, but another famine occurred in 1947.
What challenges did rural working conditions present to farmers?
Rural working conditions were dictated by seasons, and farmers’ success depended on soil quality, weather, and their ability to nurture crops.
Explain the government’s role in rural agricultural processes.
Governments attempted to intervene in agricultural processes to improve productivity and manage the challenges faced by farmers.
Describe the impact of the Emancipation Edict on peasants.
The Emancipation Edict theoretically freed serfs to work as they wished on their own land, but redemption payments and the influence of the mir restricted their activity.
Explain the role of kulaks in Stolypin’s reform.
Stolypin’s reform created kulaks, who were wealthier peasants that emerged as a result of the reforms.
How did war communism affect kulaks during the Russian Civil War?
During war communism, kulaks were accused of hoarding grain, and the Cheka was employed to requisition grain and imprison those considered ‘anti-revolutionary’.
What changes occurred in the attitude towards kulaks during the NEP?
Under the NEP, the attitude towards kulaks changed, but they were still prosecuted, faced higher taxes, disenfranchisement, and their children were barred from state schools.
Define collectivisation and its impact on kulaks.
Collectivisation deemed kulaks incompatible with the process, leading to dekulakisation, which targeted and eliminated kulaks.
Explain the Virgin Lands scheme and its challenges.
The Virgin Lands scheme pressured sections of the peasantry to increase productivity, but the growing conditions were not compatible with achieving significant agricultural gains.
Describe the working conditions for urban workers under the Tsars.
Urban workers faced the worst conditions in factories, with no factory inspectorate until 1882, leading to dangerous and unhealthy environments. Internal passports controlled migration to urban areas. Key changes included the 1882 ban on the employment of children under 12 (loosely enforced), the introduction of an 11-hour working day in 1896 with no obligation to work on Sundays, a workers’ insurance scheme established in 1903, and by 1914, statutory holidays were introduced with most employers operating on a 9/10 hour working day.
How did working conditions change under the Communist regime?
Under the Communist regime, working conditions initially worsened with extended work hours, lowered pay, and harsh enforcement of work discipline.
Explain the role of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate established in 1920.
The Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate was intended to oversee working conditions but proved to be a step backwards, functioning more as a discussion group.
What was the significance of the Stakhanovite movement in the late 1930s?
The Stakhanovite movement promoted increased productivity and led to a reduction of the working day to 7 hours as a result of the success of the Five-Year Plans.
Describe the limitations on personal freedoms under both Tsars and Communists.
Both Tsars and Communists controlled personal freedoms through the legal system, police, armed forces, propaganda, and censorship.
How did censorship function under the Tsars and Communists?
Censorship was used by both Tsars and Communists to control freedom of expression, with the Tsars using government newspapers and Communists enforcing socialist realism.
What political freedoms existed under the Tsars?
Under the Tsars, political parties were allowed but heavily monitored, and there was never a move towards universal franchise.
Explain the electoral process under the Communist regime.
Under the Communist regime, elections were highly controlled by the nomenklatura, with the Central Committee elected at annual party congresses.
What was the role of the Duma in the political system of the Tsars?
The Duma was a legislative body with a limited franchise, representing people’s views but heavily controlled by the Tsarist regime.
Describe the role of workers’ councils after 1905 in Russia.
Workers’ councils appeared and were tolerated after 1905, which played a significant role in ensuring the Bolshevik seizure of power.
Explain the nature of the Russian Communist Party’s governance after March 1918.
The Russian Communist Party established a one-party state that dominated the political landscape from March 1918 onwards.
Define the relationship between the government and the needs of the proletariat under the Communists.
Under the Communists, the needs of the proletariat were valued but were subordinate to the needs of the government.
How did the Russian Orthodox Church function under the Tsars?
The Russian Orthodox Church acted as a form of social control, relying on government support for financial resources and reinforcing the Tsar’s authority.
Explain the significance of the Tsar’s role in the Orthodox Church.
The Tsar was considered the head of the Orthodox Church, appointed by God, and any challenge to his authority was seen as an insult to God.
Describe the influence of the Orthodox Church on the peasant population in Russia.
The Orthodox Church was influential among the largely illiterate peasant population, with priests providing education and explaining that their life conditions were divinely intended.
What changes occurred in the relationship between peasants and priests under Nicholas II?
Under Nicholas II, peasants became less respectful of priests, indicating a shift in the traditional authority of the Church.
How did the Communists view religion, and what actions did they take against it?
The Communists viewed religion as ‘opium of the people’ and took actions such as the Decree on Land, which allowed peasants to seize Church land, and the Decree on the Separation of Church and State, which imposed harsh restrictions on the Orthodox Church.
What was the impact of the 1922 Constitution on religious freedoms in the Soviet Union?
The 1922 Constitution guaranteed freedom of conscience for all Soviet people, but Soviet courts lacked the power to enforce this law against the government.
Describe the events surrounding the Orthodox priests in Moscow in January 1918.
In January 1918, Orthodox priests in Moscow were massacred, and in November of the same year, the execution of priests was sanctioned.
Explain the treatment of non-Orthodox religious groups under the Tsars and Communists.
Non-Orthodox religious groups were tolerated but encouraged to convert under the Tsars; 1910 – rights of non-Orthodox restricted; while under the Communists, they faced restrictions and were often targeted.
What was the Living Church, and what was its significance in the 1920s?
The Living Church claimed to be a reformed version of the Orthodox Church, advocating a decentralized structure and gaining support for the argument that science did not disprove the existence of God.
How did Stalin’s regime approach Islam during his rule?
Stalin sought to destroy Islam to extend his power, closing mosques, discouraging pilgrimages, and attacking Islamic shrines.
What was the impact of the Great Terror on religious institutions in Russia?
During the Great Terror, many churches were closed as they were seen to aid resistance, and there were targeted attacks on ethnic groups defending Islam.
Describe the Orthodox Church’s role during World War II.
During World War II, the Orthodox Church became linked to Russian national identity, providing comfort to bereaved families and supporting Stalin’s war effort, leading to a cessation of anti-religious propaganda and the reopening of 414 churches in 1945.
What happened to minority religious groups during World War II?
Minority religious groups were targeted during World War II as they were perceived to be collaborating with the enemy.
Explain the official anti-religious campaign launched in 1955.
The official anti-religious campaign launched in 1955 placed religious activity under scrutiny, leading to the reclosure of churches.
What incentives were proposed to strengthen family units during the war?
Various incentives were proposed to strengthen family units, such as maintaining unity during the war and the ‘Distinctions to Mother Heroines’ scheme introduced in 1944.
What was the significance of the First Duma regarding education?
The First Duma announced a plan for universal primary education, leading to a rise in primary schools from 23,000 in 1880 to 81,000 in 1914, although only 51% of the primary-aged population was enrolled.
What changes did Alexander II introduce for secondary education?
Alexander II introduced a new code for secondary schools, which included both modern and traditional gymnasia, doubling the number of attending pupils by 1865.
How was the secondary school curriculum manipulated to affect middle-class students?
The secondary school curriculum and university entrance examination system were manipulated to exclude middle-class students from accessing higher education.
What restrictions did Alexander III impose on lower-class children regarding secondary education?
Alexander III banned lower-class children from attending secondary school, limiting educational opportunities for these groups.
What was the impact of the Statute of 1863 on universities?
The Statute of 1863 reinstated a large degree of autonomy to universities, although the Minister of Education retained the final say on the curriculum.
What measures did Stolypin take regarding student meetings at universities?
Stolypin made all non-academic meetings of students at universities illegal, restricting student organization and expression.
How did Alexander III’s policies affect university autonomy?
Alexander III’s policies chipped away at university autonomy, imposing stricter controls over educational institutions.
