Natural Law

Question 1

Who argues for Telos.. and why we are unique

Answer 1

Aquinas and Aristotle
We share many things in common with creatures: to grow, sex, eating, feeling emotions. We are unique in having the ability to reason and reflect and exercise our reason

Question 2

Synderesis

Answer 2

The innate principle or natural disposition directing a person towards good and away from evil

Question 3

How does reason go with telos

Answer 3

In exercising our reason we are flourishing and achieving our telos

Question 4

‘Do good and avoid evil’

Answer 4

Main moral rule - Synderesis, humans can consider whether things are good or bad all other moral rules come from this

Question 5

5 primary precepts

Answer 5

Preservation of innocent life

To reproduce

To educate

To live in an ordered society

To worship God

Question 6

Preservation of innocent life

Answer 6

Life’s importance is evident, therefore a person should be concerned with preserving its own being and human lives

Question 7

To reproduce

Answer 7

Continuation of human life - main purpose of sexual intercourse

Question 8

Education

Answer 8

Especially for the young, humans are intelligent - therefore it’s natural for us to learn

Question 9

Live in an ordered society

Answer 9

We are social beings and therefore it is good to live in an ordered society where it is possible to fulfil our purpose

Question 10

To worship God

Answer 10

We are also spiritual beings and we should recognise God as the source of life live in a way that pleases him

Question 11

Are the primary precepts absolute and universal

Answer 11

Yes, they are general statements about what is good for humans - they do not necessarily tell us exactly how to act

Question 12

What are secondary precepts

Answer 12

More specific rules that can be deduced from the primary precepts. For example, if preservation of life is a primary precepts, then we can deduce that killing a fellow human is wrong.

Question 13

Which precepts are flexible?

Answer 13

Secondary precepts as we have to consider how the primary precepts are to be applied in each situation, however primary precepts are fixed

Question 14

The four tiers of law

Answer 14

The eternal law

The divine law

Natural law

Human law

Question 15

What’s the four tiers of law - explanation

Answer 15

Aquinas sees the universe as being created with a God-given order. This order is also seen in the moral law that is built into the universe

Question 16

The eternal law

Answer 16

The law as known in the mind of God. His knowledge of right and wrong. Eternal law - moving all things towards their end and purpose. God’s wisdom reflected by his creation

Question 17

The divine law

Answer 17

Refers to the law revealed by God through his commands and scriptures -> Ten Commandments, sermon on the mount

Question 18

Natural law

Answer 18

Moral thinking we are all able to do. Given this capacity by God, this involves a rational reflection on our human nature, considering how we might do good and avoid evil, and working out secondary precepts for situations

Question 19

Human law

Answer 19

Customs of practices of society, devised by governments and by societies. Ideally, government laws should be based on what we reason from natural law.

Question 20

What is the relationship between the 4 laws

Answer 20

Hierarchical, all laws relying on the eternal law

Question 21

Eudaimonia

Answer 21

Human flourishing - happiness

Question 22

Phronesis

Answer 22

Practical wisdom and moral decision making

Question 23

Naturalistic fallacy

Answer 23

The mistake of defining moral terms with reference to non-moral or natural terms

Question 24

Natural law can be seen as a helpful way of making moral decisions

Answer 24

Primary precepts are not controversial they are goods valued by all societies both present and past

Unlike all absolutist approaches there is some flexibility

Natural law leads to a belief in certain rights that exist regardless of context, the value of life, the right to education and to live in peace are seen as part of the natural order of the world

Natural law affirms the importance of reason; humans are made in God’s image and possess the rational capacity to work out right and wrong via observations of the world

Question 25

Natural law is unhelpful as an approach to moral decision-making

Answer 25

Can be argued that across societies basic goods can be generalised. Which gods should be worshipped and how many people can be involved in marriages

Too legalistic and fixed, HIV/Aids in adrica as a result of opposing contraception is an example

Naturalistic fallacy -> assuming what happens in the world and assuming this is what must happen

Clarity of the primary precepts and the flexibility of the secondary precepts. Catechism “universal in its approach” and the “application of the natural law varies greatly”

Question 26

Existentialism

Answer 26

A movement that stresses the uniqueness of each human individual by arguing that existence comes before essence

Question 27

Essentialists and human nature

Answer 27

Aquinas believed that there is a fixed human nature. We are made in the image of God to have a clear purpose or telos. It’s built into our human nature to fulfil the primary precepts and that it’s mostly right for us to do so

Question 28

Sartre’s existentialism

Answer 28

Objected may have a fixed nature for example a knife starts as an idea in a makers mind, it’s made for a purpose and must carry out that purpose.

Humans are fundamentally different. As an atheist, humans could only have a purpose or telos if they have been made by God. Therefore, he believes we come into existence first and then we must decide for ourselves what our essence is - in other words what we are for

We are made
We choose our purpose

Question 29

Sartre on freedom

Answer 29

We have a tendency to deny our freedom and behave as if we were mere objects. Living in bad fait. A waiter who is in over exaggerating his gestures and movements is playing the role of a waiter, as if that’s all he can do.

Essence is not fixed he can choose different employment

Question 30

Natural law is right to base ideas of right and wrong on telos

Answer 30

If Aquinas is right that there is an essential human nature, then there really is a good for all humans that they should strive towards

While Aquinas supports telos with reason, divine command theory makes a similar point via revelation; the Bible reveals the ‘plans and purposes that God has for all human beings’ (Jeremiah 29:13)

Question 31

Natural law is wrong to base ideas of right and wrong on telos because

Answer 31

Aquinas may be making the mistake of assuming that all human beings have the same purpose; it may be possible that each of us have different purposes. Aquinas himself seems to allow this in his recognition that priests who are called to celibacy are exempt from the primary precept of reproduction

Existentialist dispute whether humans have any purpose except the ones they freely choose for themselves. If God does not exist, then it seems difficult to argue for objective human purpose

The scientific theory of evolution seems to suggest that purpose is not a feature of the world, but it’s rather something that human beings project onto the natural world

The idea of telos entails somethings are natural to human beings, and other things are unnatural

Question 32

Double effect

Answer 32

The idea that is doing something good also produces a bad side-effect, It is still ethically permissible as a bad side-effect was not intended

Question 33

Interior and exterior acts

Answer 33

For Aquinas, a good actor must have a good motive (interior) as well as being a good action as viewed on the outside (exterior)

To impress the teacher -> giving to charity -> wrong - interior

To prevent starvation -> stealing bread -> wrong - exterior

To prevent starvation -> buying bread -> good

Question 34

Double effect -> self defence

Answer 34

If you kill someone in self defence, it is not morally wrong

One effect would be the good effect of saving your life however, if the attackers killed, this would be a bad effect linking back to the interior and exterior acts. If you intend a good effect, you are not held responsible for the secondary bad effect.

Question 35

Applying double effect
Abortion
Euthanasia

Answer 35

In the case of an abortion, if a woman’s life is at risk, if she continues with pregnancy, the doctor would be carrying out one action, an operation with the intention of saving the mothers life, and a secondary effects of ending the life of the foetus

A doctor attempting to treat a seriously ill. Patient gives a large dose of painkillers. Relieving pain is the good effect, which is a doctor’s intention, but runs the risk of causing the death of the patient. The bad effect. If the patient dies, the doctor has done nothing wrong according to natural law as this was an unintended unforeseen consequences of the action.

Question 36

Double effect is a good way of justifying moral actions because

Answer 36

Double affect allow some flexibility in an otherwise rigid procedure in action that produces both good and bad is permitted provided the good effect is intended

It is a recognition of the complexity of real life situations. Absolutists such as Kant have no answer for situations where duties clash or competing goods cannot be achieved. double affect allows sufficient consequential, thinking into natural law to solve some of these cases.

Question 37

Double effect is not a good way of justifying moral actions because

Answer 37

It is impossible to genuinely judge the intention of a person likewise, in example of the doctor, and there is no difference between external actions of the one who wishes to relieve pain and the one who wants to kill

It is difficult to know how far to press the idea of double effect and which areas it may cover. The use of contraception with the intention of saving life is a controversial area. In terms of the Roman Catholic Church. Furthermore, double effect could be applied in order to save life or assist reproduction This may cause a slippery slope.

Question 38

Apparent good

Answer 38

An action, which someone mistakenly thinks is a real good, but they have not reasoned correctly

Question 39

Real good

Answer 39

Actions which are actually good and consistent with the moral principles of natural law

Question 40

Stoicism - Greek background to natural law

Answer 40

Zeno, Marcus Aurelius

God, or the codes created it and left within it the logos or divine reason. The divine spark is within each of us, so the reasonable response of humans towards ordered universe is to live an ordered life of virtuous actions.

Right actions are those that we are able to rightly reason. The Roman orator Cicero suggested natural law is right reason in accordance with nature

Question 41

Aquinas the orientation of human beings

Answer 41

The Synderesis principle suggest that we are directed by something within us to pursue good and avoid evil. Hence, the ability to achieve a good is within each of us if we reason correctly.

He follows Socrates, in suggesting no one ever deliberately does the wrong action they make a reasoning error in pursuing an apparent good rather than a real good.

This can be seen if a man is having an affair, despite being married, making the mistake of thinking that the pleasure he will gain is good. However pleasure is an apparent good

Question 42

There is an orientation towards the good

Answer 42

There is an order present in creation - Paley’s
arguments on design.

Aquinas is right that we do want to live well, and we naturally aim for goodness. Where we miss, it is because we are unclear on what goodness is, but our aim is nevertheless the same.

Aquinas’s idea on natural law give a dignity to human beings, and places faith in their ability to reason

Question 43

There is not an orientation towards the good because

Answer 43

To reject the teleological view of the universe more than evolution. Reviews suggest that the universal life on earth are the result of random chance. Dawkins family suggests the Blind watchmaker

Some suggestion that, although it is commendable, Aquinas gives such priority to reason he is being overly optimistic about what reason can achieve

Aquinas’s view of real, an apparent goods could be seen as a little naive some humans knowingly commit evil actions, not all humans, have a natural inclination towards good