Nationalism Flashcards
1
Q
Explain conservative nationalism’s main characteristics?
A
Determination to preserve the national interest
eg thatchers radical reforms in the national interest - resisting european integration
Nationalism used as a means of retaining social unity and reducing social conflict eg Disraeli pursues nationalism due to the class conflict resulting from feee market capitalism
Historically imperialist
Can be defensive in nature - national identity is under threat eg UKIP or hindu nationalism in response to threat of islamic culture
2
Q
Examples of liberal nationalism
A
Young Italy
Ireland
Scotland
3
Q
Examples of conservative nationalism
A
Traditional British conservatism
4
Q
definition of a nation
A
cultural entities; a collection of people blind together by shared values and traditions a common language religion and history
usually occupying the same geographical area
5
Q
why did nationalism emerge
A
during french revolution
people stood up in the name of the people - the french nation
influenced by roseau and the doctrine of popular self government
it was revolutionary and democratic
6
Q
what is the basic most fundamental belief of nationalism
A
that the nation should be the central principle of political organisation
7
Q
what are the components of nationalism
A
religion
ethnicity
language
8
Q
what nation is clearly defined by language
A
german unity is reflected in the purity and survival of the german language
9
Q
what nations have national unity without national language
A
switzerland in the absence of a swiss language three languages are spoken : french german italian
10
Q
example of nation united on the basis of religion
A
tibet
the tibetan people now in china
all owe alligenave to a single religious leader the Dalai Lama who defines their identity
11
Q
example of countries united despite multiple religions
A
Mainland UK do not inspire rival nationalism
not had the remarkable religious diversity found in the USA threatened to divide the country
12
Q
how is ethnicity a component of nationhood
A
Germany in nazi period
normally cultural rather than biological
reflects ethnic unity that may be based on race, but more usually draws on shared values and common beliefs
13
Q
how is national identity preserved using history (shared memories or common past)
A
preserved by recalling past glories national independence the birthdays of national leaders or important military victories
the USA celebrates independence day and thanksgiving; bastille day is commemorated in france
BUT independence has no relevance for the majority of families arriving centuries after these events occurred
14
Q
example of a nation with a strong attachment to territory
A
France
although the borders frequently changed
there is a strong sense of france as a historical reality
15
Q
characteristics of liberal nationalism
A
desire for self determination
creation of democracy
preservation of liberty
16
Q
who was the founder of cultural nationalism
A
Johnann Herder
Reflections on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind
he highlighted the uniqueness and superiority of german culture
17
Q
example of political nationalism and self determination
A
Early 19th century Latin America
Simon Bolivar the ‘liberator’ led revolutions against Spanish Colonial rule in what is now Colombia Venezuela and Ecuador
18
Q
for what reasons do nationalists uphold principle of national self determination and
A
political freedom
cultural cohesion
political unity
peace and international order
19
Q
why do nationalists uphold self determination due to political freedom
A
outcome is a nation state: national statehood ensures self-government and democratic rule.
Nation-states are therefore independent entities, in which citizens can decide their own destiny regardless of external factors and interference from beyond their borders.
Nationalists have tended to argue that the nation is the highest level at which meaningful democracy can operate, suggesting that supranationalism must always be a threat to democracy and self- government.
20
Q
why do nationals uphold self determination due to cultural cohesion
A
cultural unity, as people are united on shared values, common language.
The virtues of stability and unity are particularly stressed by conservative nationalists who are particularly concerned about the promise of social cohesion and political order that is embodied in the sentiment of national patriotism.
On the other hand, empires promote instability as people do not share the same respect for culture and values e.g. the British empire where the Saki tradition was outlawed, much to the dissatisfaction of the religious community.
21
Q
why does self determination promises to deliver peace and international order
A
liberal nationalists, a world of nation-states offers the prospect of peace and international order, as it fosters harmony, stability and peace, and reducing the impulse for expansionism and war, a view particularly supported by liberal nationalists.
Nationalism would promote unity within each nation and brotherhood amongst all nations on the basis of mutual respect for national rights and characteristics.
This happens because democratic nation-states respect the sovereignty of their neighbours due to the principle of rationality and enlightened self interest (cooperation)
These interdependent nation-states are sufficiently rational to realise they have no incentive to wage war or subjugate others, for fear of endangering their own internal cohesion and at large material cost.
22
Q
how has racialism been liked to conservative nationalism
A
it is based on the belief that stable and successful societies must be bound together by common culture and shared values
Enoch Powell in the 1960s with his River of Blood Speech arguing against non white immigration on the grounds that the distinctive tradition and cultures of the host community
23
Q
what two theories is racialism based on
A
there are fundamental genetics or species type differences amongst the peoples of the world
these divisions are reflected in cultural intellectual and moral differences
24
Q
how is racialism politically expressed
A
racial segregation eg apartheid 1948-1999
or in doctrines of racial superiority eg arts idm and inferiority anti semitism
25
for what purpose do conservatives support nationalism
binding and holding society together preventing social conflict
```
Margaret Thatcher
who was faced with the class conflict faced by neoliberal policies in 1980s
```
arguing her radical reforms served the national interest
resisting european integration
able to unite the majority of the nation during a time of class conflict
26
explain the concept of volk
synthesis of race and nation
Fichte saw the german people as a close knit culture based on a narrow racial grouping, formed during the middle ages
27
why do nationalists pursue self determination due to imperialism
people find themselves subject to a government of a foreign power
wish to throw off subjugation
form their own soverign state
eg struggle for independence from britain by indian nationalists
28
why do nationalists pusue self determination due to oppression
people who have subsumed into a larger oppressive regime seek self determination to escape oppression
bosnian independence from serbia
29
example of the social tensions and conflicts caused by cultural nationalism
An example of this is the ban on ‘Sati’ in India (1829), the practice of burning widows on their husband’s funeral pyre which can be dated back to 3rd century BC.
After the ban, priests in Sindh region complained that the British colonial government was interfering with the rare local sati custom.
30
explain how expansionist nationalists has a tendency towards conflict and war
expansionist nationalism has a tendency towards bloodshed and conquest.
Expansionist nationalist champions the conquest and occupation of some inferior nations by other, more superior or ‘special’ nations.
Some expansionist nationalists hold the view that great nations have a historic duty to conquer and take other more primitive and backward countries, effectively elevating the colonised people in “civilising missions”.
This domination of the colonised population often resulted in violence and conflict, as was seen in the French and British empires.
31
explain how social conflict occurs due to expansionist nationalism
by nature, here is a conflict between the culture of the host country and the culture of the coloniser.
Out of the belief they are doing it for their ‘own good’ the colonising country instils their culture onto the country, as was seen in British India.
This then results in the removal of centuries old traditions and established practices that results in social tensions.
32
example of how the maintenance of empire involves conflict
maintenance of this empire often involves squashing rebellions and resistance.
e.g. the Indian rebellion against the British in 1857 resulted in the deaths of at least 800,000 people; more specifically, places such as Delhi, Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow were all met with general massacre after they were recaptured by British forces.
33
how do some anti-colonial nationalists advocate war and conflict
this is done to bring about national liberation
violent struggle is the only way for the colonised people to be truly free of their colonisers.
inspired by Frantz Fanon a psychologist who eventually joined the FLN in Algeria. he argued that violence was necessary for a colonised people to be free from their imperial masters, as it had a cathartic effect – arguing violence is powerful enough to bring about pyscho-political regeneration.
In this way, colonization and decolonization is not simply a political process, but also brings about a new ‘species’ of human.
34
example of violent anti colonial nationalist movements
The violence of the revolutionary upheavals seen in Mao Zedong’s China, Ho Chi Minh’s Vietnam and Fidel Castro’s Cuba, all act as practical examples of Fanon’s creed.
Also, the anti-colonial nationalist movements in Algeria and Kenya deliberately targeted European settler communities using quasi-terrorist tactics, further illustrating the doctrines potential to inspire violence.
35
how do some anti colonial nationalist promote peaceful reform
some anti-colonial nationalists advocate a peaceful struggle, seeking freedom and good relations from their colonial masters.
The implications of these ideas were seen in Ghandi’s philosophy for Indian decolonisation.
This fused Indian nationalism with an ethic of non-violence and self-spiritual condition; this lead to an anti-industrialist approach, famously embodied in his wearing of home-spun clothes.
This non-violent approach lead Ghandi to favour strategies of boycotting, protest marching, and fasting by him and his followers.
36
what do liberal nationalists believe the cause of war and conflict, with example
Woodrow Wilson
He believed the existence of multinational, sprawling empires that are inclined towards militarism and expansionism.
At the Paris Peace Conference this idea was advanced, as Wilson believed WW1 had been caused by an ‘old order’ dominated by autocratic and militaristic empires.
Thus there is no justification for taking resources and territory in empire, and every country should have the right to self determination
37
why do liberals believe self-determination is the antidote to war and conflict
Self-determination acts as the antidote to war and international rivalry: it is a means of establishing peaceful, harmonious, stable international order.
Nationalism would promote unity within each nation and brotherhood amongst all nations on the basis of mutual respect for national rights and characteristics.
This happens because democratic nation-states respect the sovereignty of their neighbours due to the principle of rationality.
These nation-states are sufficiently rational to realise they have no incentive to wage war or subjugate others, for fear of endangering their own internal cohesion.
38
why does conservative nationalism have a tendency for social conflict
its narrow and exclusive concept of national identity and pessimism about mass immigration arguably legitimizes xenophobia and isolates minorities causing conflict WITHIN nations.
39
why does conservative nationalism sometimes involve violence and conflict
Violence used defensively to preserve a national identity under attack/danger of uprising
De Gaulle and Salazar, both key conservative nationalists, employed considerable violence to try to keep control of their key colonies.
It is thus prominent when a sense of national identity is at danger of being lost
This was seen in 1982, following the Argentinean invasion and occupation of the Falkland Islands, Conservative prime minister Margaret Thatcher used war and conflict as a method of defending the territory which had been held since 1842.
40
why is it not inevitable conservatives with use violence or conflict in order to maintain empire
Pragmatism
Conservative nationalists will allow imperial breakup if there are sufficient reasons to do so. Under Harold Mac-Millan, the UK was no longer the dominant colonial power it once was.
This was made more significant by the recent Suez crisis – intervention to impose the will of the country on a colony was no longer acceptable – and the expensive nature of the colonies, they were becoming more of an economic burden than an asset (in trade).
Therefore, to avoid the threat of armed conflict, the UK’s colonies were granted decolonisation.
41
explain the meaning of national chauvinism
National chauvinism breeds a feeling of intense, even hysterical nationalist enthusiasm, often generated by militarism and war in drawing a sharp distinction between ‘them’ and ‘us’.
Chauvinism has commonly been reflected in racialist ideologies, which divide the world into an ‘in group’ and an ‘out group’ in which the ‘out group’ becomes the scapegoat for all the misfortunes and frustrations suffered by the ‘in group’.
42
distinguish between the key goals of both nationalism and racialism
Key goal of nationalism is the establishment of a nation state: to bring the borders of the state into line with the boundary of the nation as nationality and citizenship coincide. JS Mill.
Key goal of racialism is racial segregation (e.g. apartheid 1948-1993) or doctrines of racial hierarchy justifying the obliteration or enslavement of others. Nazism.
Superiority also justifies expansionism of the inferior 'civilising missions'. For example, European settler empires e.g. scramble for Africa
43
example of the inclusive nature of political nationalism
For example, the Scottish National Party don’t see ethnic difference as problematic, it doesn’t preclude a feeling of Scottishness
44
explain how conservative nationalists are essentially backward looking and nostalgic
These nationalists view defence of historical institutions and a traditional way of life, as opposed to expansionist territorial gains. For example, de Gaule attempting to hold on to Algeria, Thatcher defending the Falklands.
It reflects on a past age of national glory or triumph, with military victories being viewed as defining features in a nation’s history.
Alongside this, traditional institutions are also seen as part of national identity; for example, the English institution of the monarchy is involved in state occasions such as opening parliament and national celebrations such as Armistice Day.
These long-standing institutions seen as the bedrock of national identity: to be celebrated and defended.
45
explain conservative nationalists concern with social order and cohesion
This is embodied in national patriotism: giving a sense of social rootedness
They view human nature as limited and security seeking - something a national community will offer. Thus, nations emerge naturally from the desire of human beings to live with others who possess the same views, habits and appearances of themselves.
This can be done pragmatically, to head off a threat from political revolution and instability.
Potentially hostile elements of society are appeased through a sense of belonging – e.g. Thatcher’s patriotism following social instability in the Miner’s strike.
46
where does conservative nationalism develop
In established nation-states, rather than in ones that are in the process of nation building.
47
when does conservative nationalism develop
It is particularly prominent when the sense of national identity is feeling threatened or in danger of being lost.
Immigration opposes the view that stable and successful societies must be based on shared values and a common culture, as it brings with it conflicting religions and traditions from other societies.
They are therefore hostile to immigration as an interal threat, diluting national identity e.g. Enoch Powell envisaged war on the streets as a result of ethnic tensions.
Supranational bodies such as the EU pose a seek to erode to national identity and so the cultural bonds of society; expressed in the UK as ‘euro-scepticism’ and the US viewing the UN as a threat to political power.
48
explain the difference in goals for political and cultural nationalists
political nationalists overtly look to the future, pursuing self-determination and sovereign statehood. Due to the Polish struggle for independence from Russia, Rosseau argued there is a natural political community vested in culturally unified people. For example, Simon Bolivar (‘the liberator’) lead independence movements across Latin America against Spanish colonial rule in the early 19th century.
By contrast cultural nationalists look to the past in a desire cultural resurrection, protection and preservation (forward looking vs backward looking), can lead to demands for cultural purity or assimilation. Johnann Herder argued for the unique superiority of German culture.
49
distinguish between the inclusivity/exlusivity of political and cultural nationalists
Political nationalism is inclusive as it defines the nation rationally via territory not romantically in culture, religion, ethnicity. For example, SNP do not see ethnic cultural and religious differences as problematic, doesn’t preclude a feeling of Scottishness: to be Scottish is to live in Scottish territory.
Cultural nationalism is exclusive as they believe nations were forged in the distant past (mystical or emotional basis), new members of the nation are never worthy of being equal – PRIMORDIAL BONDS. It is therefore implicitly or explicitly chauvinistic/hostile towards other nations or minority groups based on a mixture of cultural pride and fear.
50
explain why cultural nationalism emerges following mass migration
Cultural nationalism develops in mature nation states with a relatively long history of existing independently but are under perceived threat from immigration
e.g. British cultural nationalism emerges strongest when people fear changes to the cultural and ethnic composition of society, as seen in the popularity of Enoch Powell’s River of Blood speech
51
example of cultural nationalism emerging following the rapid growth of a neighbouring state
German cultural nationalism in early 19th century, political establishment feared the modernising, radicalising influence of the universalist French revolution.
The revolution called for representative government, end of absolute rule (driven by the pursuit of knowledge, science, rationality).
There was a fear Germany would look exactly like France, and so there was widespread revival of German myths and legends e.g. brothers Grimm collected and published folk tales
52
why are the nation and the state commonly confused due to boundaries
The origins of the boundaries of the nation coincide with the state - JS MILL
Woodrow Wilson in his 14 points speech following World War I argued the boundaries should coincide to encompass a distinct group of people, e.g. the Polish state should encompass the polish people.
The origins of this are the merging of the concepts of nation and state during the French revolution.
The nation and the state overlap in the modern world, blurring the distinction between nationality and citizenship. Japanese lack of immigration.
53
how is the aspiration for a nation state a reason that the two are confused
Political nationalism is characterised by the aspiration of a nation to establish sovereign statehood, meaning that national identity is closely linked to the aspiration for self- government.
The nation can exist without a state representing them as they are pyscho-cultural,
but a state is a pyscho-political entity, requiring a physical political entity.
Nations without independent homelands, have a primary goal of a desire to be a nation and a state.
For example, the Kurdish people across Iran and Syria – see themselves as a distinct nation, desire for a state across 4 existing territories.
54
for what reasons do liberals argue nation states are peaceful political formation
o nation-states enjoy sovereign independence and so are unwilling to threaten the sovereign independence of other nations
o expansion and conquest would undermine the political and cultural cohesion that makes nation-states so successful
o democratic nation-states share a common culture and so are unwilling to fight one another, and are also accountable to the people who will have to fight, kill and die in the event of war.
55
explain how ethnocultural nationalism fuses the nation and race
They believe race and nation are one and the same – argue nations should be built on racial purity, no aliens of any kind (no immigration or minorities).
In British terms this is the BNP argue being British is synonymous with being white, Christian – demands for limited or selective immigration
56
explain how chauvinistic nationalists see the key determinant of nation as race
Nazism, relied on the German philosophers Herder and Fichte. Nazism viewed a Nazi race and Nazi nation as inevitable; they believed that the German race was superior to all others in terms of intellect, organisation and purpose. The purity of the racial line was essential to the strength of the nation.
Imperial Japan enslaved Korean and Chinese races as they were inferior so could only inhabit that part of Japanese culture.
57
why does the nation state promote social cohesion and political unity
When a people who share a common cultural or ethnic identity gain the right to self-government, nationality and citizenship coincide.
It promises stability, as, within a nation-state, political and cultural identity overlap.
It legitimizes the authority of the nation itself; representing the notion of popular self-government – the idea the government is carried out either by the people or for the people, in accordance with their ‘national interest’.
58
why is the nation state the highest political ideal
vital manifestation of political freedom, its outcome, a fully independent nation-state, being the highest and most desirable form of political organisation.
In this sense, sovereign statehood allows nations to decide their own destiny, safe from external influence.
No other social group could constitute a meaningful political community – it is the only viable political unit.
59
explain how patriotism differs from racialism
Patriotism can be inclusive and non-hierarchical to the extent that it embraces all of those who are committed to this love of country. For example, America is based on a multicultural, multi-ethnic society as everyone shares certain values.
On the other hand, racialism is exclusive: race determines belonging. It reflects fixed and unchangeable set of characteristics.
e.g. Imperial Japan enslaved Korean and Chinese races as they were inferior so could only inhabit that part of Japanese culture.
On the other hand, patriotism can be more emotional and romantic ideal of the nation, not implying hostility.
60
in what way is there overlap between patriotism and racialism
if patriots define their patriotic identity in terms of belonging to a distinct race.
Nazism was an extreme example of patriotism based on a supposed racial identity. Nazism believed that the German race was superior to all others in terms of intellect, and purpose. The purity of the racial line was essential to the strength of the patriotism at the time, idealising the ‘Aryans’ and demonising the Jews.
Patriots can also be committed to a hierarchical approach, viewing their country as superior to others. This can lead to forced assimilation.
61
explain how liberal nationalism is progressive in nature
associated with the quest for sovereign independence, involving unification or independence
they have sought to forge a world of independent nation-states, thereby reordering international politics as well as domestic politics.
optimism about the future, celebrating modern systems of political organisation e.g. representative democracy over the ‘old order’ of sprawling multinational empires (something Woodrow Wilson argued was the cause of World War I).
This new world of democratic nation states would establish a peaceful international order, leaving behind rivalry, distrust and conflict.
62
explain how post colonial nationalists are backward looking
they seek to revive traditional religious ideas such as tribal systems of rule. They turn their back on western and soviet models of government looking to pre-modern systems.
For example, the Islamic revolution in Iran seeks to revive medieval system of government and traditional models of social structure.
63
explain how expansionist nationalists are backward looking
draws on myths of a past ‘golden age’ which exemplifies national glory or superiority in order to advance militaristi projects.
inspired by the past, and aim to reignite past glories.
For example, Mussolini saw Roman Empire as direct inspiration from his expansionist plans. Hitler saw himself as the holy roman emperor, drawing distictions between the Nazi and Knights Templar.
64
explain how expansionist nationalists are forward looking
it also has aspirations for the future, in terms of the creation of empires and even world domination (Nazism).
In some cases, the past and the future are brought together in myths about the cyclical regeneration of a particular nation.
65
explain how conservative nationalism is backward looking: defending tradition
defence for traditional institutions and a traditional way of life.
For example, in the Uk this is seen in a fierce opposition to the House of Lords reform, maintaining that the Church of England is an important part of the nation and support for the monarchy.
They argue these long-standing institutions are to be celebrated and defended as the bedrock of national identity.
66
explain how conservative nationalism is backward looking: nostalgia
It often nostalgically reflects on a past age of national glory or triumph.
In this way, it harks back to a ‘golden age’ of national greatness; arguing it has slipped away as the nation is battered by globalisation and immigration.
For example, Enoch Powell river of blood speech, envisaged wars on the streets as a result of ethnic tensions.
67
explain how conservative nationalism is backward looking: resistance to change
Similarly, it is often used to resist change, particularly to defend a sense of national identity that is felt to be threatened or in danger of being lost.
This is evident in trends towards supranationalism, as in the tendency of European integration to weaken British national identity.
Conservative nationalists argue national organisations limit sovereignty, seeking to erode national distinctiveness.
68
explain how anti colonial nationalists pursuit for indepencence/unification is forward looking
Political independence via unification or independence is is ultimately inspired by future.
For example, Franz Fanon argued that all aspects of a past empire had to be eliminated, as the colonised people cleanse themselves in a cathartic war of liberation.
He argued this would bring about a ‘NEW MAN’ who no longer has the mark of colonised subject.
69
explain how anti colonial nationalists are forward looking in their leaders
the first wave of anti-colonial leaders often seek to build a new, modernised nation post-independence.
based on ideologies of political and economic advancement, seeking inspiration from western liberalism and capitalism or Marxist/Leninist state socialism.
70
example of forward looking anti colonial leaders
The first President of India famously stated the dams and power stations will be our temples now – old tribal divisions and castes left behind for technological development and economic modernisation.
Similarly, Algeria and Vietnam sought to move away from peasant economies towards industrial economies along Soviet lines.
71
Wilson’s 14 points
basis for peace in WW1
proposed to reconstruct europe according to the principle of national self determination
achieve security through a general association of nations; expand trade
72
who is Frantz Fanon
revolutionary theorist
anti colonial struggle
total revolution and absolute violence can help black or colonised people to liberate themselves from the social and psychological scars of imperialism
73
marx quote on the transnational character of socialism
working men have no country
74
how did Lenin see imperialism
an economic phenomenon
a quest by capitalist countries seeking investment opportunities
cheap labour and secure markets
75
what is the marxist criticism of nationalism
it has been viewed as a device through which the ruling class counters the threat of social revolution
by ensuring that national loyalty is stronger than class solidarity
thus binding the workers to the existing power structure
76
organic community
united by their belief
humankind is naturally divided into a collection of nations possessing a distinct character and separate identity
this is why a higher loyalty has a deeper political significance than any other group or collective body
```
class gender religion and language may be important or come into prominence
BUT the bonds of nationhood are more fundamental
```
national ties and loyalties are found in all societies endure over time at an instinctual, primordial level
primotdialism modernism and constructivism
77
explain how a primordialist would portray national identity
historically embedded
nations are rooted in a common cultural heritage and language that may long pre date statehood
or the quest for independence and are characterised by a deep emotional attachment that resembled kinship ties
Antony Smith: stressed the continuity between modern nations and pre modern ethnic communities
this implies there is little difference between ethnicity and nationality; modern nations are updated versions of immemorial ethnic communities
78
explain how a modernist would portray national identity
forged in response to changing situations and historical challenges
Ernest Gellner: process of industrialisation required a new source of cultural cohesion (NATIONALISM) as social mobility occurred
national community is deep rooted and enduring - a return to pre modern loyalties and identities is unthinkable
79
how do constructivists view national identity
largely ideological construct serving the interests of powerful groups
MARXIST HOBSBAWM highlighter that nations are invented traditions
historical continuity and cultural purity is a myth
nationalism creates nations not the other way around
80
in what ways is nationalism progressive
looking to the future of independence
looking to national greatness
BUT
national glories
entrenched established identities
81
in what way is nationalism non rational
emotional
| ancient fears and hatreds
82
explain the justification by 3rd wave intersectionality
differences BETWEEN women
rectify the over emphasis on aspirations and experiences of middle class white woman in developed societies
new diverse and hybrid movement
voices of low income women in the developing world; women of colour to be heard effectively
BLACK FEMINISM
83
post modern feminists on gender
reject idea of a fixed female identity
the idea of a woman may be fiction
biological differences shaped by gendered discourse - not all women capable of beating children
84
what does the public sphere involve
public sphere of life encompassing art work politics and literature
has been the preserve of men
85
explain the personal is the political
female oppression is thus thought to operate in all walks of life and in many respects originated in the family itself
analyse politics of everyday life:
domestic responsibilities
process of conditioning in the family
the politics of personal and sexual conduct
86
example of how the public private divide can be broken down
for some feminists
breaking down the public private divide implies transferring the responsibilities of private life to the state or other public bodies
eg the burden of child rearing on women could be relived by more generous welfare support for families / provision of nursery schools
87
criticism of conservative nationalism
elite form of manipulation.
The nation is invented and certainly defined by political leaders who may use it for their own purposes.
This is seen most evidently in times of war or international crisis, when the nation is mobilized to fight for the fatherland, by emotional appeals to patriotic duty.
promote intolerance and bigitory.
By insisting on the maintenance of cultural purity and established traditions, conservatives portray immigrants or foreigners in general as a threat.
This legitimizes or promotes racialist and xenophobic fears.
88
contrast conservative exclusivity to liberal inclusivity
Conservative nationalism is exclusive whilst Liberal nationalism is inclusive.
For conservative nationalists, identity is built on shared values. Anything that challenges that is concerning, threatening to undermine national identity. For example, Enoch Powell’s River of Blood Speech. Conservatives demand complete abandonment of their own culture in assimilation, absolutely. Norman Tebbis Cricket Test – you must support England, emotional abandonment to old country and connection to new in order to demonstrate loyalty.
Liberal nationalists believe identity is built on shared political values, not ethnic or cultural exclusivity. For example SNP accept people that live in the Scottish territory, arguing ethnic, cultural or gender lines do not preclude a feeling of Scottishness.
89
what is the difference in liberal
Liberal nationalists support supra national organisations to prevent the international state of nature.
It is the best way of promoting national interest, making peaceful revolutions of conflict possible.
in a world of sovereign nations self restraint alone may not be sufficient for ‘perpetual peace’.
For example, Woodrow Wilson supported the first experiment of world government – the League of Nations, and then the UN.
Conservative nationalists argue these organisations damage national sovereignty, weaken distinctive national identity, lessen the countries prestige or national greatness.
For example, British conservative nationalists have been concerned with the rise of supranational bodies such as the EU
90
contrast how liberal nationalism is forward looking and conservative nationalism is backward looking
Liberal nationalists have looked to the future in the sense that they have sought to forge a world of independent nation-states, thereby reordering international politics as well as domestic politics. T
here is an optimism about the future, celebrating modern systems of political organisation e.g. representative democracy over the ‘old order’ of sprawling multinational empires (something Woodrow Wilson argued was the cause of World War I).
Conservative nationalism is essentially nostalgic and backward-looking, providing a defence for traditional institutions and a traditional way of life.
For example, in the Uk this is seen in a fierce opposition to the House of Lords reform and support for the monarchy: long-standing institutions are to be defended as the bedrock of national identity.
It often nostalgically reflects on a past age of national glory or triumph; arguing it has slipped away as the nation is battered by globalisation and immigration.
For example, Enoch Powell river of blood speech, envisaged wars on the streets as a result of ethnic tensions.
91
what is the main division in nationalism
anti-colonial and expansionist sub-strands of nationalism.
Expansionists want to build up empires, whilst anticolonial nationalists want to break them down.
For example, during the ‘scramble for africa’, African territory was divided, occupied and Colonised by European powers in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Furthermore, the creation of a ‘New Order’ in East Asia dominated Japanese military thinking during the 1930s, justifying the conquering and enslaving of Chinese and Korean people.
By contrast, the Indian independence movement forced the British out of jewel of British empire,. Additionally, Simon Bolivar – the liberator - fought against Spanish colonial rule in Latin America during the 19th century.
92
example of how expansionist nationalism draws on racialism
As was evident in European imperialism, based on an ideology of racial and cultural superiority. 19th century Europe widely believe that the “whites” of Europe and America were intellectually and morally superior to the “black, brown and yellow” people of Africa and Asia. They therefore argued it was their moral duty to colonise them – the white mans burden.
93
explain why all nationalists believe the world is divided into discreet nations
This happens organically in a community – naturally feeling kinship with certain people common ground, distant from people without common grown; not artificially created or political constructs.
They are a reflection of the natural divisions in the human species.
All nationalists oppose Benedict Anderson’s view that nations are nothing more than an imagined community (you never find that out because you never meet everyone that is part of the same nation).
94
explain why all nationalists believe that the nation state is the ideal form of political organisation
All nationalists believe the nation state is the ideal political organisation – movement, party of any kind should be organised on a national scale. Nationality is the largest part of national identity over gender and class – dismissing and rejecting feminism for gender being the highest social cleavage and Marxists on international proletariat solidarity – working class has no country, workers of the world unite.
95
what is the value of the nation according to conservatives
binds society together giving a common culture and civic identity
all the more stronger as it is rooted in history and tradition
96
what do conservatives see the most significant threat to the nation
from within: the growth of multiculturalism
weakens the bonds of nationhood: threatening political community
creating the spectre of ethnic and racial conflict
97
why is liberal nationalism criticised
1) Naïve and romantic. Ignore the darker face of nationalism, the irrational bonds of tribalism that distinguish us from a foreign threatening them.
Liberals see nationalism as a universal principle but have less understanding of the emotional power of nationalism.
2) Misguided. They believe the nation-state is the key to political and international harmony: the ideal of a politically unified and culturally homogenous nation-station can only be achieved by forcibly deporting minority and imposing an outright on immigration.
For example, Yugoslavia contains Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, Albanians.
98
background of liberal nationalism
oldest form of nationalism, dating back to the french revolution
e.g. simon bolivar; woodrow wilson
Roseau's defence of popular soviergnty
99
background of conservative nationalism
Disraeli, Bismarck and Tsar Alexander III became sympatheticc to nationalism
maintain social order
defend traditional institutions
100
why is conservative nationalism criticised
1 elite manipulation: nation is invented and defined by political leaders who use it for their own purposes; war or international crisis the nation is mobilised to fight for a fatherland due to an emotional appeal to patriotism
2 promotes intolerance and bigotry
insisting on maintaining cultural purity and established traditions; portrays immigrants and foreigners as a threat legitimising racial and xenophobic fears
101
background of expansionist nationalism
late 19th century as european powers indulged in the scramble for africa
national prestige was linked to the possession of empire
each colonial victory lead to widespread public approval
Aggressive and expansionistic nationalism reached its high-point in the inter-war period, when the authoritarian or facist regimes of Japan, Italy and Germany embarked on policies of imperial expansion and world domination, eventually leading to world war 2.
102
why do nationalists uphold the principle of self determination on the grounds of political unity
this makes the nation-state a uniquely stable political entity.
As the leaders or representatives are drawn from the nation by the people therefore there is a sense of mutual respect as they believe that decisions are made in the best interests of the nation as a whole.
According to liberal nationalists, this will allow the leaders of each nation state to embody and articulate the ‘general will’ of the people of the nation state.
103
key features of conservatism:
| emerges in established nations
rather than in ones that are in the process of nation building
when the sense of national identity is feeling threatened or in danger of being lost: exclusive, perhaps implicitly racialist character.
In this way, immigration and supra-nationalism are the primary concerns for conservative nationalists today. Immigration opposes the view that stable and successful societies must be based on shared values and a common culture, as it brings with it conflicting religions and traditions from other societies.
For conservative nationalists, complete cultural assimilation is demanded of all migrant communities, as expressed most simply through Norman Tebbit’s ‘Cricket Test’.
Supranational bodies such as the EU pose a threat to national identity and so the cultural bonds of society; expressed in the UK as ‘euro-scepticism’.
These supranational organisations also threaten national sovereignty and prestige.
104
key features of conservatism:
| support nationalism as a guarantee of public order and social cohesion
For conservatives, society is organic: they believe that nations emerge naturally from the desire of human beings to live with others who possess the same views, habits and appearances of themselves.
As human nature is limited, people seek meaning and security within a national community.
Thus, the goal of Conservative nationalism is to maintain national unity by fostering patriotic loyalty and ‘pride in one’s country’.
Conservative nationalists view nationalism as a political force capable of binding the working class to the nation state and therefore an effective tool to be used in reducing the threat of a working class revolution.
105
key feature of conservatism:
| viewing the nation in historical terms
viewing nationalism as a defence of historical institutions and a traditional way of life.
nostalgic and backward looking, reflecting on a past age of national glory or triumph, such as military victories being viewed as defining features in a nation’s history.
Alongside this, traditional institutions are also seen as part of national identity; for example, the English institution of the monarchy is involved in state occasions such as opening parliament and national celebrations such as Armistice Day.
106
why do liberals argue nationalism promotes peace and international order:
nations are naturally peaceful formations
nation states, governed by constitutional democracy, embody the ‘general will’ of the people.
Each nation is unified by a sense of brotherhood, with no one nation being incentivised towards expansionism.
t democratic-nation states are sufficiently rational to realise cooperation is against their self-interest.
These same nation-states enjoy sovereign independence and so are unwilling to threaten the sovereign independence of other nations.
Additionally, within the democratic nation-state there is a common culture, making people unwilling to fight each-other.
Political unity within a democratic nation-state also makes elected officials accountable to the people who will have to fight, kill and die in the event of war.
107
why do liberals argue nationalism promotes peace and international order:
supranational bodies
helping to prevent the international state of nature. As disputes between countries are inevitable, this is the most effective way of solving them peacefully.
For example, Woodrow Wilson supported the first experiment of international government, the League of Nations, and later the UN.
These organisations help to build cooperation and interdependence among nations. They will act as neutral arbiters in any disputes between nations.
Liberals believe that each individual nation state will recognize that it is in their own self-interest to cooperate and collaborate with one another.
108
why do liberals argue nationalism promotes peace and international order:
primary threat from sprawling multinational empires
‘old order’
traditionally been militaristic and expansionist, having been formed through conquest and routinely use military force to further their internal and external ends.
After WWI, liberals such as Woodrow Wilson thus sought to re-draw the map of Europe on the basis of the principle of national self- determination e.g. encompassing the Polish people within Poland.
109
explain why nation and race are commonly confused by chauvinistic nationalists
their view is that the nation is an exclusive and organically defined entity
this then leads to an emphasis on ethnic or cultural purity that encourages such nationalists to conflate nations and races, arguing that the key determinant of national identity is genetic.
Race and the nation became synonymous in the racial nationalism of Nazism, which relied on the German philosophers Herder and Fichte.
Nazism viewed a Nazi race and Nazi nation as inevitable; they believed that the German race was superior to all others in terms of intellect, organisation and purpose.
The purity of the racial line was essential to the strength of the nation.
110
explain why nation and race are confused by conservative nationalists
who argue that shared history (generally also encompassing shared ethnicity) is crucial to a stable society.
For example, Enoch Powell, in his ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech, argued against non-white immigration on the grounds that the distinctive British host community would be threatened.
"the black man will have the whip hand over the white man in 20 years"
111
why have the nation and state been commonly confused in recent years
potency of nationalism over the last 200 years
major achievement of bringing the boundaries of the nation increasingly into line with the borders of the state, means there has been construction of so-called nation-states.
The origins of this are the merging of the concepts of nation and state during the French revolution. The nation and the state overlap in the modern world, blurring the distinction between nationality and citizenship.
112
why are the nation and state commonly confused due to the aspiration to achieve sovereign statehood
meaning that national identity is closely linked to the aspiration for self- government.
JS Mill argued that the boundaries of nationality and government should coincide, a view shared by other liberal nationalists.
For example, following World War 2 Woodrow Wilson re-drew the boundaries of European countries, in order to accommodate the nation-state e.g. the Polish people were encompassed by the polish state.
This why nations are sometimes seen not merely as psycho-cultural entities, but as psycho-political entities.
For example, the Palestinians or the Basques of Northern Spain and southwest France.
Additionally, even if it is not held currently, the origins of the nation tend to coincide with the state
113
describe the nation
Nations are cultural entities, groups of people who consider themselves to have common circumstances at birth.
They may share the same language, religion, history, traditions and values; generally occupying the same geographical area.
However, as no nation is culturally homogeneous nations are ultimately defined subjectively by their members through the existence of patriotism or national consciousness.
For example, the Tibetan people define themselves in terms of religion; all owing allegiance to a single religious leader – the Dalai Lama – who defines their identity.
114
key feature of liberal nationalism: inclusivity
Liberal nationalism is inclusive in nature, embodying everyone who shares the same political values.
For example, Scottish nationalism (SNP) embodies people of many different ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. They argue that these differences do not preclude a feeling of Scottishness.
115
key feature of liberal nationalism: opposition to foreign domination
colonialism, authoritarian rule and oppression.
In Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points speech following WWI, he argued that the sprawling multinational empires of the ‘old order’ were the cause of the war.
Instead, they argue that nation states should be governed by constitutional democracy, embodying Rosseau’s “general will”.
Woodrow Wilson argued in favour of Europe not only comprising nation states, but also one in which political democracy rather than autocracy ruled: a democratic republic is the only genuine nation state.
116
key feature of liberal nationalism: support for neutral arbiters
act as arbiters against an international state of nature.
In this way, as disputes between countries are inevitable, this is the best way to peacefully and rationally resolve conflict.
For example, Woodrow Wilson supported the first experiment into international government, the League of Nations 1919, and later the UN.
117
key feature of liberal nationalism: pursuit of self determination
justified on the grounds that one nation is never superior to the next: every nation has equal right to self determination. I
n this way, the nation-state is the highest form of political organisation, ultimately creating a world where “the boundaries of government [do] coincide with those of nationality” JS Mill.
Each nation would be unified by a sense of brotherhood, being interdependent and mutually cooperating.
This understanding also encompasses a liberal support for free trade – economic interdependence mean the material costs of conflict are so great that warfare becomes unthinkable.
For example, following WWI Woodrow Wilson argued that Europe should be divided up into nation states, e.g. encompassing the Polish people within Poland.
118
key feature of expansionist nationalism:
| superiority
all nations do NOT have an equal right to self-determination; some nations are believed to possess characteristics or qualities that make themselves superior to others.
This was clearly evident in European imperialism, justified on an ideology of racial and cultural superiority: the white people of Europe and America were intellectually and morally superior to the black brown and yellow people of Africa and Asia.
Indeed for this reason expansionist nationalism has been morally justified: colonial peoples were the “white man’s burden”, bringing Christianity to the less sophisticated peoples of the world.
They are therefore defined by a desire to extend national glory to an international level; so accompanied by militarism as military glory and conquest are the ultimate evidence of national greatness.
119
key feature of expansionist nationalism:
| exclusivity
a heightened sense of belonging to a distinct national group.
This is often stimulated by negative integration: the portrayal of another nation or race as a threat or an enemy.
In the face of this, the nation draws together experiencing its own identity and importance.
Therefore clearly defines ‘them’ and ‘us’, an in group and an out group with the latter being a scape goat for all the misfortunes and frustrations of ingroup. Pan-Germanism and anti-Semitism.
120
key feature of expansionist nationalism:
| emotional not rational
intense, hysterical national enthusiasm, often associated with over-zealous patriotism.
The rational individual is swept away on a wave of patriotic emotion, expressed in the desire for aggression, expansion and war.
Charles Murras called this intense patriotism “integral nationalism”: individuals lose their identity within an all-powerful nation, which has an existence and meaning beyond the life of any single individual.
The civilian population is militarized; infected by the martial values of absolute loyalty, compete dedication and willing self-sacrifice.
121
distinguish between primordialist modernist and constructivist approaches to nationalism
P: identity is historically embedded (nations are rooted in common cultural heritage and language) Antony Smith
continuity between modern nations updated versions of pre modern ethnic communities
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M: identity is forged in response to changing situations and historical challenges. Ernest Wallner
industrial societies (social mobility/self striving/competition) require a new source of cultural cohesion
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C: ideological construct serving the interests of powerful groups; marxists nations are invented traditions (historical continuity and cultural purity a myth)
nationalism creates nations - counters social revolution
national loyalty stronger than class solidarity
binding working class to power structure
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what do all nationalists believe
the belief that the nation is the sole legitimate unit of political rule.
The world is naturally divided into nations, each possessing a distinctive character and separate identity.
These nations are of higher loyalty and of deeper significance than to any other social group or collective body: it forms the basis of individual and group identity. It is therefore more important than gender and class: dismissing feminist cries for ‘sister solidarity’ and Marx calling for ‘workers of the world unite’. The bonds of nationhood are the most fundamental.
