Liberalism

Question 1

social darwinism quotes

Answer 1

SMILES (self help): “heaven helps those who help themselves” COBDEN: “look not to parliament, look only to yourselves” SUMNER: “the drunkard in the gutter is where he ought to be”

Question 2

social contract

Answer 2

a hypothetical agreement among individuals through which they form a state in order to escape from the disorder and chaos of the state of nature both sides uphold the agreement or face the consequences (state = revolution, people = imprisonment) Locke

Question 3

natural rights

Answer 3

god given rights that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable can’t be taken away life liberty and property Locke

Question 4

what is the concept of freedom

Answer 4

the ability to think or act as one wishes a capacity that can be associated with the individual, a social group, or a nation can be seen to be the unifying principle within liberal ideology

Question 5

on what grounds have liberals supported democracy

Answer 5

on the grounds of: consent political participation pluralist

Question 6

what philosophers are associated with natural rights

Answer 6

Thomas Hobbes John Locke

Question 7

why have liberals supported the fragmentation of government power?

Answer 7

Because of concerns about power and in particular concentrated power Liberals believe that power tends to corrupt because human beings are essentially self seeking creatures and so will use any position of power to pursue their own interests probably at the expense of others the greater concentration of power, the greater the incentive people have to both benefit themselves and use others to this end

Question 8

describe neoliberalism

Answer 8

updated version of classical liberalism economy works best when left alone by government reflecting a belief in free market economics and atomistic individualism unregulated market capitalism delivers efficiency growth and widespread prosperity the dead hand of the state saps initiative and discouraged enterprise market fundamentalism

Question 9

explain why liberals support individualism

Answer 9

seen in a strong support for individual freedom, support toleration, respecting the views and values even if they disapprove classical liberals egoistical individualism emphasised individuals are self seeking, self reliant, rational and so able to carve out own destiny modern liberals developmental individualism which reflects a belief in personal growth and self realisation allowing individual to truly flourish

Question 10

modern liberals on individualism

Answer 10

advanced a developmental form of individualism priorrizises human flourishing over the quest for interest satisfaction

Question 11

what is rationalism?

Answer 11

the belief that the world has a structure that can be explored and understood through the exercise of human reason and critical injury new mode of thinking associated with the enlightenment so reflects an underlying belief in reason and progress

Question 12

what is the concept of individualism?

Answer 12

the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body

Question 13

what was mills opinion on freedom

Answer 13

individuals should have almost complete freedom over their actions as long as these actions do not harm others

Question 14

equality

Answer 14

the principle that human beings are of identical worth or are entitled to be treated in the same way

Question 15

how do both liberals and anarchists agree on positive freedom

Answer 15

both claim that societies they propose maximise INDIVIDUALISM and fulfilment of personal progress and creativity liberated individuals from the restraints of societies which restrict choice and opportunity and discourage the achievement of self realisation

Question 16

free market

Answer 16

the principle or policy of unfettered market competition free from government interference

Question 17

list some key neoliberal policies

Answer 17

privatisation spending cuts especially in social welfare tax cuts specially in coroporate tax deregulation

Question 18

how do modern liberals support individualism?

Answer 18

developmental individualism nurturing interventionist state allowing individuals to develop their true capabilities to self actualise people need education to be intellectually developed and healthcare or housing to be physically developed

Question 19

example of how democracy holds the government accountable?

Answer 19

more than 120 mps went against their constituencies in the article 50 vote

Question 20

what do modern liberals think of freedom

Answer 20

positive freedom in the sense of personal development and human flourishing

Question 21

when did neoliberalism emerge

Answer 21

1970s influential of 1980s government

Question 22

describe negative freedom

Answer 22

the areas within which man can act unobstructed by others

Locke: “the state has no business interfering in matters of men’s souls”.

the principal threats to freedom stem from law (and therefore government) and physical constraint.

However, this freedom should be infringed upon to protect ‘natural rights’: life liberty and property. Classical liberals believe domestic order should be maintained through a police force and law courts: “where there is no law, there is no freedom” (Locke).

Such a view implies that freedom can be expanded most clearly by ‘rolling back’ state power and minimal social and economic intervention – opposition to paternalism.

Adam Smith argued that the market works according to the dictates of supply and demand, which are in term driven by self-interested individuals: the market should act in accordance with the invisible hand of individuals, not the dead hand of the state.

Therefore, for supporters of negative freedom, the state is at best a “night-watchman”.

Question 23

consent

Answer 23

assent or permission in political s usually an agreement to be governed or rule

Question 24

how have liberals supported democracy on the grounds of its protective function

Answer 24

citizens must have a means of protecting themselves from the encroachment of government offers an alternative to autocratic and absolutist systems, all powerful government for example, governments are accountable to propel through elections, they consent act as night watchman to protect against human nature LOCKE

Question 25

what are the benefits of fragmenting power?

Answer 25

1 the principle motivation of humans is self interest ; pursuing their goals at the expense of others no one person or institution should have excessive power as “power tends to corrupt absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely Lord Acton Fragmenting power means there is limited scope for power to be abused for people’s own agendas and interests 2 liberal support for individual rights and freedoms if those with political power are given free reign rights and freedoms may be initially respected, but eventually (due to majoritarian pressure) they will take away those freedoms leading to a “tyranny against individuals” Js Mill, Locke fragmenting power means there is limited ability to withdraw rights and freedoms and influence the individual

Question 26

describe individualism

Answer 26

the belief in the primacy or supreme importance of the human individual over any social group or collective body viewing humans as individuals implying both that they have unique identities and qualities and that they enjoy an equal moral and political status

Question 27

how does devolution or federalism fragment political power?

Answer 27

allows power to be dispersed more evenly scored a nation prevents a centralised government concentrated in power minorities are not left marginalised and abandoned more attention paid to them and brings government closer to the people exemplified by the presence of more devolution under the liberal democrat’s manifesto

Question 28

key concepts of classical liberalism

Answer 28

liberty of the individual individuals free to pursue self interest tolerance of different beliefs religions and cultures minimal government free market representative democracy

Question 29

what is the neoliberal view on the state?

Answer 29

support for a minimal state one that merely maintains domestic order this enforced contracts and provided defence against foreign attack leaving other matters (especially economically and morally) in the hands of the individual you know

Question 30

describe positive freedom

Answer 30

the individual to be able to develop skills and talents, broaden his or her understanding and gain fulfilment.

TH Green dismissed negative freedom, arguing the economic aspect of it simply amounted to the “freedom to starve” as individuals are exploited. Individual capacity to achieve this can be blighted by social disadvantages and injustices that prevent individuals from realising their true potential.

Freedom can be expanded by an enabling state, using qualified social and economic intervention to widen individual opportunity and safeguard citizens from the social evils that may blight their lives. e.g. People’s Budget 1909 which introduced unprecedented tax increases in order to pursue a program of welfare (old age pensions, free school meals).

Mill argued that higher pleasures should be satisfied which develop an individual’s intelligent, moral and aesthetic sensibilities.

Mill supported education to allow for rational development across society, echoed by modern liberals in their support for the education act 1970.

Question 31

utility

Answer 31

use value in economics utility describes the satisfaction that is gained from the consumption of material goods and services

Question 32

what do modern liberals think about individualism

Answer 32

a more developmental form of individualism prioritising human flourishing over interest satisfaction

Question 33

meritocracy

Answer 33

rule by those with merit intelligence plus effort society in which social position is determined exclusively by ability and hard work

Question 34

free trade

Answer 34

a system of trade between states not redirected by tariffs or other forms of protectionism

Question 35

what are the differences between neoliberalism and neoconservatism?

Answer 35

Neoliberalism derives from classical liberalism; neoconservatism is rooted in traditional conservatism Neoliberalism advances an atomistic model; neoconservatism is linked to organicism Neoliberalism is libertarian whilst neoconservatism is authoritarian Neoliberalism emphasise economic dynamism while neoconservatism has prioritises social order

Question 36

classical liberals on individualism

Answer 36

egotistical individualism emphasis on self interestedness self reliance

Question 37

describe modern liberals

Answer 37

sometimes referred to as social liberals this reflects their support for welfare and redistribution

Question 38

how do classical liberals support individualism?

Answer 38

egotistical individualism minimal state allowing ineividuals to make key decisions standing or falling according to own efforts (social darwinism) state has no more than nightwatchman role

Question 39

pluralism

Answer 39

a belief in diversity or choice or the theory that political power is or should be widely and evenly dispersed

Question 40

autonomy

Answer 40

self government the ability to control ones own destiny by virtue of enjoying independence from external influences

Question 41

what is the classical liberal opinion of freedom?

Answer 41

believe in negative freedom viewed as the absence of external restrictions on the individual allowing freedom of choice such a view implies that freedom can be expanded most clearly by rolling back state power

Question 42

state of nature

Answer 42

a pre political society characterised by unrestrained freedom and the absence of established authority

Question 43

what type of individualism do classical liberals subscribe to

Answer 43

they subscribe to “egotistical liberalism” which places an emphasis on self interestedbess and self reliance

Question 44

market fundamentalism

Answer 44

an absolute faith in the market reflecting the belief that the market mechanism offers solutions to all economic and social problems

Question 45

what are the implications of the liberal link to rationalism?

Answer 45

it strengthens the liberal belief in freedom; implying that rational individuals are the best judges of their own interests people are self striving and self sufficient inclined liberals to believe that conflict and disagreement are irrational can be resolved through rational debate and negotiation rather than force explains why liberals advocate reform, grounded in the assumption that human history is characterised by a gradual expansion of human understanding which can be used to make the world a better place

Question 46

what is constitutionalism

Answer 46

the theory or practice of limited government brought about through either existence of a constitution network of institutionalised fragmentation in the form of internal checks and balances (separation of powers, federalism, bicameralism, judicial independence)

Question 47

individualism

Answer 47

the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group or collective body

Question 48

describe social liberalism

Answer 48

justified by a need to expand positive freedom, as modern liberals recognise that freedom can be threatened by social disadvantage and inequality.

social liberalism is necessary to safeguard people from the social evils blighting their lives.

By protecting individuals from the social evils that cripple their lives, the state expands freedom, not diminishes it.

In the words of William Beveridge, founder of the modern welfare state, “a starving man is not free”.

Social liberalism is also supported as it promotes equality of opportunity, put forward by John Rawls in ‘A Theory of Justice’, arguing for ‘equality of fairness’.

For liberals, justice requires equal life chances; If people have an equal start in life, the fairest form of society can emerge – people succeed and fail based on merit (hard-work and talent).

Question 49

laissez-faire

Answer 49

literally leave to do the doctrine that economic activity should be entirely free from government interference

Question 50

example of modern liberal keysnian government intervention

Answer 50

new deal 1930s by president FDR following the great depression involved the state in massive infrastructure projects of airports bridges freeways Hoover Dam employing millions

Question 51

describe economic liberalism

Answer 51

The ideas of economic liberalism are mainly attributed to Adam Smith (The Wealth of Nations) and David Ricardo.

The market should be free from government interference as it is managed by the ‘invisible hand’ and so has a tendency towards long-run equilibrium.

This view draws heavily on liberal and rationalist assumptions about human nature.

The state should therefore only intervene to protect market competition (for example, by restricting cartels and monopolies).

Relationships within the free market are voluntary and contractual, made by self-interested individuals pursuing the acquisition and consumption of wealth – reflective of the classical liberal ‘egoistical’ individualism.

State intervention is opposed as the ‘dead hand’ of the economy, whilst free market, ‘laissez-faire’ economics is advocated.

Neoliberals argue this tends naturally to deliver general prosperity and opportunities for all.

Question 52

democracy

Answer 52

rule by the people democracy implied both popular participation and government in the public interest and can take a variety of forms

Question 53

what is the modern liberals opinion of freedom?

Answer 53

they believe in positive freedom they understand self mastery or self realisation: the achievement of autonomy and the development of human capacities freedom can be expanded by qualified social and economic intervention, designed to widen individual opportunity and safeguard citizens from the social evils that may blight their lives HOWEVER this is only justified in circumstances where citizens do not enjoy the capacity to make wise moral decision in their own interests, usually because of social disadvantage desire to help individuals help themselves SO EMBRACE BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

Question 54

what do classical liberals think of freedom

Answer 54

support negative freedom ie absence of constraints freedom of choice

Question 55

key concepts of welfare liberalism

Answer 55

state sponsored welfare schemes state management of the economy greater concentration on equality of opportunity freedom from social depravation

Question 56

how have liberals supported the fragmentation of government power?

Answer 56

through various devices eg separation of powers (the legislature executive and judiciary act as both independent and interdependent bodies) federalism based on the principle of shared sovereignty devolution parliamentary government and cabinet government

Question 57

on what grounds overall do modern liberals defend the principle of social welfare?

Answer 57

positive freedom equality of opportunity

Question 58

how do modern liberals defend the principle of social welfare on the grounds of positive freedom?

Answer 58

empowerment and opportunity in that sense welfare safeguards people from the social evils that may blight their lives promotes personal growth and development and allows poeple to realise their potential self actualisation helps people help themselves william beveridge “a starving man is not free”

Question 59

explain the link between liberalism and constitutionalism?

Answer 59

based on the feat that all forms of rule are apt to become tyrannies against the individual this fear stems from the liberal belief in individualism which implies that those in power will use their position primarily to benefit themselves (at the expense of others) rather than the public at large Acton watned that power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely government is therefore legitimate only if it is subject to the checks and constraints, constitutionalised government always being preferable to arbitrary government

Question 60

how do modern liberals defend the principle of social welfare on the grounds of equality of oppertunitird?

Answer 60

John Rawls “A theory of justice” arguing for equality of fairness allows true meritocracy - fairest form of society, rewards according to ability not force or status justice requires an equal start where they end up is a reflection of the individual merit a combination of their talent and willingness to work whether they succeed or fail people thus get what they deserve 1942 beveridge report identified five giants - squalor idleness ignorance want and disease in which the welfare state was expanded

Question 61

how have liberals supported democracy on the grounds of its developmental benefit

Answer 61

it is endorsed on the grounds that political participation had educational advantages by participating in political life, citizens enhance their understanding strengthening their sensibilities and achieve a higher level of personal development encourages intellectual development enhancing rational decisions serving wider national purpose and individual interest MILL

Question 62

why do neoliberals support a minimal state?

Answer 62

rolling back the state unleashed the dynamism of the market offering the prospect of prosperity for all removing the dead hand of be state from the economy moral benefits in that it widens individual freedom and strengthens personal responsibility

Question 63

how are liberalism and rationalism linked?

Answer 63

Reject conservative paternalism we their perspective undermined the importance of making their own informed moral choices; comfortable with social inequality based on meritocraticy Inclined to see human history as progress - the expansion of scientific knowledge and human advancement, based on human he application of reason to science and society Reason is central to liberals (since the enlightenment) as it frees individuals from bones of superstition and ignorance. To the extent that human are rational and thinking creatures able to define and pursue their own best interests - a key part of liberalimsn

Question 64

what are the main reasons liberals defend constitutionalism

Answer 64

primarily because they fear that as power tends to corrupt, all systems of rule are apt to become tyrannies against the individual this fear is grounded in the assumption that human beings are essentially self seeking and so will use power for their own benefit constitutionalism prevents the development of absolute power and therefore absolute corruption this is because it gives rise to a system of check and balance (separation of power, judicial independence, parliamentary gov, federalism)

Question 65

how have liberals supported democracy on the grounds of pluralism

Answer 65

a more modern liberal argues democracy is the best means of maintaining equilibrium within complex and fluid modern societies multiplicity of culture politics religion as democracy gives competing groups a political voice it binds them to the political system and so maintains political stability BENTHAM: greatest happiness for greatest number alternative is dictatorship

Question 66

what is the aim of neoliberalism

Answer 66

half and if possible reverse the trend towards big government and state intervention that had characterised much of the twentieth century greatest impact in uk and us

Question 67

toleration

Answer 67

forbearance a willingness to accept bored or actions with which one is in disagreement

Question 68

voltaire toleration quote

Answer 68

I detest what you say but i will defend to the death your right to say it

Question 69

why did a liberal support for toleration emerge

Answer 69

17th century John Milton and John Locke defend religious freedom government has no buisness meddling in “the care of men’s souls” toleration should therefore be extended to all matters regarded private, on the grounds that moral questions should be left to the individual

Question 70

why do liberals reject paternalism

Answer 70

this undermines the ability of individuals to make their own informed moral choices and their ability to learn from their mistakes it ignores the human capability to be rational self reliant and responsible assumes people are limited to the extent they can’t make decisions based on anything other than emotion pride or ignorance liberals are therefore comfortable with inequality in grounds of meritocracy

Question 71

what view of freedom do all liberals share

Answer 71

no liberal supports absolutism they agree unrestrained freedom would lead to a reversion to the “state of nature” which would be “nasty brutish and short” hobbes they agree human nature is fundamentally selfish and savage with corrupt impulses they thus subscribe to social contract theory that individuals consent to be governed in order to maximise liberty - “no liberty without law” this prevents harm to others - the harm principle (mill)

Question 72

why does individualism encourage liberals to support toleration

Answer 72

this involves respecting views and values of others even when they are disapproved of

Question 73

how is conflict an implication of rationalism

Answer 73

encourages liberals to believe conflict and disagreements can be resolved through the application of argument and debate via negotiation and diplomacy rather than force liberals avoid excessive nationalism as conflict is irrational

Question 74

how is reform an implication of rationalism

Answer 74

this is grounded in the assumption that human history is characterised by a gradual expansion of human understanding the application of reason and science to the world has enabled people not only to understand and explain the world but also help shape it for the better

Question 75

how is education an implication of rationalism

Answer 75

the human capacity for rationalism can be homed and refined in order to combat bigotry and prejudice people have a capacity to engage in rational thought; this reduces the need for state interference in people’s lives encouraging freedom and individualism eg wollstonecraft argues for women to receive the same right to education and voting as men due to their equal rational capacity

Question 76

why do liberals defend constitutionalism due to a fear of power

Answer 76

all forms of rule are apt to become tyrannies against the individual: constitutionalism tames government.

fear stems from the liberal belief in individualism, which implies that those in power will use their position primarily to benefit themselves (usually at the expense of others), rather than the public at large.

As human beings are self-seeking creatures, having power means they will naturally use it for their own benefit at the expense of others.

Lord Acton, as a result, warned that “power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely”.

Government is therefore legitimate only if it is subject to the checks and constraints, constitutional government always being preferable to arbitrary government.

Question 77

why do liberals defend constitutionalism to prevent the erosion of individual rights and freedoms

Answer 77

Liberals believe that if those with political power are given free reign, rights and freedoms may be initially respected, but eventually (possibly due to majoritarian pressure) they will take away those freedoms leading to a “tyranny against individuals” (Montesquieu).

Key Liberal philosophers including Locke and JS Mill have warned against this.

They believe that if power is fragmented, then those in power will have a limited ability to influence the individual, and so limited ability to withdraw rights and freedoms.

Question 78

what does hobbes’ concept mean for liberals

Answer 78

coined the term state of nature nasty brutish and short liberals agree that the state is thus required to promoted stability and security liberals disagree that the state should be an all powerful leviathan

Question 79

what three concepts is locke associated with

Answer 79

natural rights - even a minimal state is required to protect life liberty and property thus it should be a neutral arbiter and enforce law and order social contract - a hypothetical agreement between the state and the people that both sides must uphold nightwatchman state - gov. power limited to maintaining stability and security in society

Question 80

what concept is associated with JS Mill

Answer 80

harm principle - freedom should not be infringed upon unless it harms others people should be allowed the most freedom possible defence for freedom in private sphere as these actions are self regarding

Question 81

why does JS mill support plural voting and democracy

Answer 81

this involves an extra vote for every level of education as these people vote in the national interest in contrast to newly enfranchised working class voters who only vote in narrow short term class interests this could potentially violate property rights by the seizure of it, or by taxation also suggested democracy is the best possible system if there is a universal base level of education

Question 82

how did JS Mill contribute to the idea of positive freedom

Answer 82

he agreed that higher pleasures need to be satisfied for individual fulfilment and true freedom

Question 83

what two reasons did Hobhouse argue for higher state intervention

Answer 83

1) he distinguished between property held for power and property held for use use = everyones entitled power = state has duty to restrict it in the background of slum lords who owned all the property in an area so artificially increased prices of rent etc 2) argued government should intervene in property disputes on the side of the powerless the is because there is a power imbalance that needs to be corrected state is not minimal and is not neutral (working class support)

Question 84

quote on minimal state

Answer 84

government that governs best governs least thomas jefferson

Question 85

classical liberals on human nature

Answer 85

Locke; Bentham: rational and self-interested individuals they pursue pleasure and avoid pain - maximise utility influenced by utilitarianism no capacity for altruism - the only reason humans do good is to benefit themselves no social responsibility, there is an obligation to our fellow humans leads humans to an atomistic societal view their pessimism about human nature is realised when combined with power

Question 86

modern liberals on human nature

Answer 86

TH Green argued egoism is restrained by some altruism a desire to develop in a fuller sense, as humans have higher pleasures and needs - intellectual and cultural development alturism in society should reflect this, state gives people the capacity to help themselves

Question 87

what is the classical liberal role of the state shaping society

Answer 87

state is a necessary evil (Paine), a minimal nightwatchman state - law and order - enforcing contracts -external defence freedom should be maximised in order to create a meritocratic society achievement is down to hard work

Question 88

what is the modern liberal role of the state in shaping society

Answer 88

welfarism - equality of opportunity to create more equal life chances e.g. state pensions healthcare the state is an enabler beverage report 1942

Question 89

why is the modern liberals view on human nature an example of a degree of collectivism

Answer 89

more collective responsibility naturally do perceive the needs of others as important TH green argued natural capacity for altruism People want to cooperate, collaborate collectively together This pushes people towards collective structures

Question 90

why is the modern liberal support for welfarism inherently collectivist

Answer 90

taking taxation from the wealthy and spending it on the poor shows a redistribution of wealth this limits individual freedom of some to aid the collective e.g. Peoples Budget 1909 Based on the idea of societies as a whole - universalism everyone is entitled to education, healthcare and universal benefit

Question 91

why is the modern liberal support for keynesian economics inherently collectivist

Answer 91

collectivist in ideas raise AD raises public spending economic problems dealt with via collectivist structures - state uplifts workers collectively individuals are not left alone to shoulder the economic storm, without the support of the state e.g. FDR’s new deal

Question 92

why have liberals not entirely embrace collectivism

Answer 92

they advice collectivist ideas for individualist ends they don’t pursue a socialist utopia, they pursue a world of self sufficient individuals through QUALIFIED intervention - not entirely collectivised with a large distribution of wealth a collectivist institution such as the welfare state are advanced to give individuals a start, as a platform this gives them enhanced ability to progress and become self sufficient eg. FDR’s new deal furthers individualism not crush it

Question 93

Bentham

Answer 93

human beings are rationally self interested creatures

utility maximisers - the greatest happiness for the greatest number

justification for laissez-faire economics

Question 94

how do classical liberals share the individualist anarchist view on human nature

Answer 94

Both think individuals are self serving

Anarchists: believe due to enlightened human rationality, behaviour does not have to be regulated. In Stirner’s ‘The Ego and His Own – 1845, he argued individuals serve themselves, irrespective of community needs, but recognise that they may be confronted by other powerful self-interested egoists which encourages them to moderate their behaviour for fear of encouraging opposition.

Liberals: atomism - that society is simply a collection of individuals that are self-seeking and self-reliant.

Question 95

why have liberals opposed democracy on the grounds that it ignores inequality of knowledge

Answer 95

Democracy endangers wise and sensible governments because as JS Mill argued political wisdom is unequally distributed and largely related to education.

The newly enfranchised, but uneducated working class are more likely to vote in accordance with narrow class interests. This endangers the private property rights indirevtly via excessive taxation or directly, in the common ownership of wealth as they enact the “politics of envy”. In this way, those who have succeeded in society are punished; conflicting with the liberal support for meritocracy. Mill reconciled this with what was at the time a utopian idea: a base level of education for everyone, allowing people to be universally rational.

Gasset noted that the arrival of universal democracy led to overthrow of civilized society and moral order, paving way for authoritarian rulers to come to power by appealing to basest instincts of the masses. E.g. Hitler, Mussolini and Franco.

Question 96

explain why liberals oppose democracy on the grounds of the tyranny of the majority

Answer 96

Liberal democracy favours the collective over the individual, giving rise to the tyranny of the majority (Tocqueville).

Rosseau predicted problems in majority rule, as individual rights are suppressed in favour of the collective, majority rights. This has implications of dull conformism, based on the unfounded assumption that the majority is always right.

Rosseau drew a difference between the will of the people, based on eslf interest, and the general will, based on the common good. Thus, the majority shouldn’t govern at the expense of the minority; making popular bad decisions that could involve persecuiting particular groups. For example, the discrimination against Catholic minority by Protestant majority in Northern Ireland.

This is the paradox of democracy: it is a means by which people could be liberated and free to express individualism, and yet excessive amounts of this can result in the oppression of minorities. Can become the enemy of the individual, ‘the people’ are not a single entity but rather a collection of individuals and groups, possessing different opinions and opposing interests.

Question 97

explain why liberals oppose democracy on the grounds of human nature

Answer 97

Liberals fear power as human beings are self seeking creatures.

Egoism + power = corruption. People seek to use it for their own benefit. Lord Acton, ‘Power tend to’ Despotic absolutist regimes in the middle east are examples of consequences due to the lack of constitutional powers.

Authority therefore gives rise to a ‘psychology of power’, based on a pattern of ‘dominance and submission’.

For Paul Goodman, this is leads to a society in which ‘many are ruthless and most live in fear’ which is no different to the state of nature as argued by Hobbes and Locke.

Thus it is argued that liberal democracy fails to appreciate the negative and destructive forces that are embodied in the institutions of law and government.

Question 98

example of state intervention to promote equailty of opportunity

Answer 98

introduction of free state education in 1870 with the Elementary Education Act

Question 99

explain why the liberal new right is anti statist

Answer 99

the state is regarded as a realm of coercion and un-freedom; collectivism restricts individual initative and saps self respect

the collective power of government is seen as the principal threat to the individual

faith is placed in the indiivudal and the market, encouraging people to make rational choices in their own interest

Question 100

describe utalitarianism

Answer 100

19th century Bentham

individuals are motivated by self interet (desire for pleasure/happiness, avoiding pain = utility)

principle of utility is a moral principle of the rightness of actiono; ttendency to promote happiness

each individual can best percieve his or her own best interests; no one else can judge the quality or degree of happiness

institutions and legislation can be judged according to happiness

Question 101

why do liberals support welfarism on grounds of equality of opportunity

Answer 101

Equality, for liberals, means that individuals should have an equal opportunity to develop their unique skills and abilities.

For liberals, justice requires a level playing field and equal life chances.

If people have an equal start in life, the fairest form of society can emerge. Whether they succeed or fail, it is due to merit, ability and hard work instead of nepotism and privilege; people thus get what they deserve in a true meritocracy.

This was prominently put forward by John Rawls in ‘ A Theory of Justice’, arguing for ‘equality of fairness’ – economic inequality is only justified if it benefits the poorest in society.

Liberals therefore support equal access to education, to allow individuals to develop their talents on a level playing field. Modern liberals support for the Education Act 1970.

Question 102

why do liberals support welfarism on grounds of positive freedom

Answer 102

welfare safeguards people from the social evils that may blight their lives.

promotes personal grow and development, and allows people to realise their potential – helping people help themselves.

In the words of William Beverage, founder of the modern welfare state, “a starving man is not free” or TH Green, whoa argued the freedom to be left alone amounted to little more than the “freedom to starve”.

Green noted that the unrestrained pursuit of profit had created new forms of poverty and injustice that were affront to freedom.

Therefore, the state has a duty and social responsibility to reduce or remove these disadvantages.

This means citiens have welfare or social rights: the right to work, decent housing and an education.

Beveridge Report 1942 which identified five giants (squalor, ideleness, ignorance, want and disease), in which the welfare state was expanded.

Question 103

how do liberals support constitutionalism

Answer 103

support for written constitutions, such as the US constitution, based on Montesqieu’s “power should check power”.

It specifies 3 branches of government (Executive, Judiciary, Legislative), which creates a separation of powers within government. Each branch has the ability to scrutinise and restrict each other through clear checks and balances making no one branch all-powerful.

This prevents any individual or small group from gaining dictatorial power, by controlling the legislative, executive and judicial functions of government.

For example, in 1952 President Truman’s attempted to seize steel mills in order to keep labour disputes from disrupting steel production: struck down by judiciary as unconstitutional.

Question 104

implications of social liberalism

Answer 104

Social liberalism is thus advanced by an enabling state; most clearly seen in the 20th century, where Keynesianism was advanced and the welfare state was established.

The Beveridge Report 1942 which identified five giants (squalor, idleness, ignorance, want and disease), in which the welfare state was expanded.

Thus, the government has a duty to help people help themselves, and is viewed as a positive, necessary actor to achieve economic prosperity.

Question 105

implications of economic liberalism

Answer 105

neoliberal revolution of the 1980s, in which there was a significant ‘rolling back’ of the state.

This is seen most clearly in Thatcher’s systematic and extensive support for laissez faire economics; to the extent that she was said to carry Hayek’s ‘Road to Surfdom’ in her handbag.

This is seen in practice, in the privatisation of previously state-owned industries and de-regulation, as occurred in the City of London during the ‘Big Bang’.

Thus, the ‘dead hand’ of the state is assaulted in favour of the free hand of the market.

Question 106

whos idea was the harm principle

Answer 106

JS Mill

Question 107

whos idea was natural rights

Answer 107

John Locke

Question 108

whos idea was the social contract

Answer 108

rosseau

hobbes

locke

kant

Question 109

why does a libreal belief in individualism lead to support for toleration

Answer 109

Individualism also inclines liberals to support toleration, respecting the views and values of others even when one disapproves of them.

Voltaire “I detest what you say but I defend to the death your right to say it”.

Support for toleration is rooted in the individual as moral and private matters should be left to the individual.

Mill argued toleration is a guarantee of personal autonomy and is thus a condition for moral self-development.