National and transnational process Flashcards
What impact did strict contraception laws during colonial eras in Africa have?
reinforced values that discouraged contraceptive use, which persists even after liberalization of these laws
How did Christian missions contribute to anti-LGBTQ attitudes in Africa?
- spread anti-LGBTQ rhetoric which affects attitudes today
- Formal criminalisation of same-sex relationships common across African countries
What role did colonization play in the concept of heterosexuality?
framed non-European systems of gender, sex, and sexuality as inferior, aligning dichotomous sex with binary gender roles in a racialized and classed heterosexual matrix.
How did British colonization impact LGBTQ acceptance in India?
- imposed Judaeo-Christian ideas about gender and sexuality, disrupting traditional acceptance of third-gender individuals and same-sex love.
- hijiras” who don’t fit into categories of man or woman
How do authoritarian leaders scapegoat LGBTQ individuals?
By framing LGBTQ identities as Western imports, they divert attention from corruption and inequality while fueling existing prejudices.
What challenges do LGBTQ refugees in Kenya face?
face exclusion from government services, denial of asylum, and discrimination in housing, healthcare, and employment
What laws targeting LGBTQ individuals were passed in Uganda in 2023?
Harsher laws including the death penalty for LGBTQ individuals.
How did colonial influence alter Middle Eastern views on homosexuality?
- Initially condemned by European cultural morals (19th)
- later became viewed as part of a Western cultural onslaught against Middle Eastern authenticity.
- Partly a response to observation that west was becoming more accepting towards homosexuality
How do families in Iraq and Egypt participate in LGBTQ discrimination?
- By reprimanding feminine behavior in men
- reporting LGBTQ loved ones to authorities
- perpetuating violence
What tactics do Egyptian police use to target LGBTQ individuals?
- impersonate users on dating apps
- conflate LGBTQ identities with sex work
- enforce morality laws through entrapment.
What systemic issues do LGBTQ refugees face in Africa and the Middle East?
Poverty, homelessness, violence, and mental health struggles due to discrimination and lack of societal acceptance.
How far back does Hindu thinking on gender and sexuality date according to the Vedic period? Bhatt
Around 4000 B.C., Hinduism embraced diverse views on gender and sexuality.
What was Section 377, and how did it impact India? Bhatt
- Enacted in 1861, it punished homosexual acts with life imprisonment, persisting even after India’s independence
- enforced in 42 former colonies inlc. Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
What was significant about Nepal in 2007 regarding gender inclusivity? Bhatt
Nepal became the first South Asian country to re-recognize a third gender category.
What historic law did Pakistan pass in 2018? Bhatt
The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act allowed Pakistanis to choose their gender on documents and prohibited discrimination based on gender identity.
How has India’s Hindu nationalist movement framed homosexuality? Bhatt
As a reprehensible Western import, contrary to historical acceptance in Hinduism.
What roles did women hold in pre-colonial African societies? Mohammed
Women led armies, played important consultative roles in politics, and in some cases, like the Lovedu people, served as supreme Rain Queens.
How were effeminate males treated in some pre-colonial African societies? Mohammed
They were treated as women and could marry men, such as the mudoko dako.
What were the Chibados or Quimbanda in Angola? Mohammed
Male diviners believed to carry female spirits through anal sex, according to some scholars.
How common was woman-to-woman marriage in pre-colonial African societies? Mohammed
It was documented in more than 40 pre-colonial African societies, allowing women to marry other women to uphold and augment kinship ties.
How did colonialism and the slave trade impact gender practices in Africa? Mohammed
- targeted and repressed transgressive gender performances and disseminated Christian values that labeled non-binary gender identities as deviant.
- church portrayed individuals who did not conform to binary gender roles as bad influences on Christian colonial society
Why is it anachronistic to label pre-colonial African gender identities as “transgender”? Mohammed
term retrofits contemporary gender categories onto historical practices that existed in their own cultural contexts.
What is the “heterosexual matrix”? Patil
framework where bodies, gender, and desires are naturalized, assuming a stable sex expressed through a stable gender (e.g., masculine = male, feminine = female) defined through heterosexuality.
Why is the heterosexual matrix considered imperial? Patil
emerged within colonial and transnational relations, aligning binary gender roles and heterosexuality with civilization while marginalizing others.
What role do imperial histories play in understanding sex, gender, and sexuality? Patil
reveal how transnational cross-border processes shaped regimes of sex, gender, and sexuality
What does Uganda’s 2023 Anti-Homosexuality Bill entail? Washington post
criminalizes identifying as gay, punishes same-sex relationships, prosecutes media for “gay content,” outlaws LGBT funding, and imposes the death penalty for “aggravated homosexuality.”
How prevalent is the criminalization of same-sex relationships in African countries? Washington post
Of the 64 countries criminalizing same-sex relationships globally, at least 32 are in Africa.
How do China and Russia influence Africa’s stance on LGBT rights? Washington post
Both nations promote conservative views on LGBT issues, framing homosexuality as Western decadence, which resonates in Africa due to colonization
How has South Africa’s LGBT rights journey differed from the rest of Africa? Washington post
South Africa held its first Pride march in 1990 and legalized same-sex marriage, becoming a pioneer on the continent.
What are the two types of surrogacy? Fenton-Glynn
- Gestational surrogacy involves implanting a surrogate mother with an egg and sperm
- traditional surrogacy uses the surrogate’s own egg.
Why has surrogacy gained global attention? Fenton-Glynn
Surrogacy’s popularity has grown, creating a $6 billion industry but also raising concerns about mistreatment and exploitation.
What are some risks faced by surrogate mothers? Fenton-Glynn
- experience exploitation
- inhumane conditions
- withheld payments if strict requirements aren’t met or if they miscarry.
How does surrogacy legislation vary across countries? Fenton-Glynn
Laws differ widely, with some countries recognizing the surrogate as the legal parent and others designating parenthood to commissioning parents from birth.
What challenges arise from inconsistent surrogacy laws? Fenton-Glynn
Children can be left stateless when laws clash, and countries often prioritize child welfare by accepting arrangements despite exploitative practices abroad.
What attracts financially vulnerable women to surrogacy? Fenton-Glynn
Lured by significant earnings, such as up to $20,000 in Ukraine, which is more than eight times the average yearly income.
What is racialized access to the surrogacy market? Hovav
Division of reproductive labor where Mexican surrogates, racialized as non-white, gestate babies for white intended parents, reinforcing post-colonial racial hierarchies.
How do intended parents preserve their moral self-concept? Hovav
By insisting their surrogate is economically stable and not driven by financial need, thereby countering exploitation narratives.
How does the altruism/commercialism dichotomy affect surrogates? Hovav
disciplines surrogates into viewing their labor as an altruistic act rather than work, justifying lower wages and creating compliant reproductive workers.
What power do surrogates hold in the industry? Hovav
Surrogates have immense power once pregnancy is confirmed, as the industry’s “product” is contained within their bodies.
How does whiteness operate in the surrogacy market? Hovav
Whiteness signifies economic status, affluence, and class, reproducing white bodies at discounted rates through racialized reproductive labor.
What is the role of surrogacy agencies in shaping the surrogate-parent relationship? Hovav
Agencies manage intended parents’ fears by selecting economically stable surrogates and promoting surrogacy as an altruistic endeavor.
What trend has emerged regarding marriage in urban China over the last decade? Gui
Postponed marriage has become common, with the average age at first marriage for women rising to 28.4 in 2015, and for men to 30.3
What is the term “leftover women” used for? Gui
- well-educated, independent women over their late 20s who remain single, rejecting traditional androcentric attitudes.
- socioeconomic independence is seen as intimidating, creating barriers to marriage within the patriarchal structure.
Why are leftover men less discussed in media compared to leftover women? Gui
Male late marriers are often from rural areas with fewer socioeconomic resources, while female late marriers hold social and cultural capital.
What generational gap exists in perceptions of marriage in China? Gui
- Parents often view marriage as utilitarian and prioritize it over mutual attraction, while young women seek compatibility and independence.
- Parents influence marital choices due to cultural expectations of family lineage, reliance on children for eldercare, and socioeconomic anxieties.
How do single women perceive the advantages of singlehood? Gui
Many appreciate freedom, autonomy, and independence, but also report experiencing loneliness, stigma, and societal pressure.
What societal norm restricts career-oriented women from finding partners? Gui
Socioeconomic hypergamy, where men prefer marrying women with lower socioeconomic achievements, limits their pool of eligible mates.
How have sexual attitudes in China shifted over time? Liu
They have gradually shifted from traditional to liberal due to economic reforms, globalization, and exposure to Western values since the late 1970s
What has been the public response to homosexuality in China? Liu
While laws decriminalizing homosexuality and increased representation in media have fostered acceptance, public disapproval remains common due to censorship and entrenched traditional values.
How do urban and rural attitudes toward sexuality differ? Liu
Urban dwellers are generally more progressive, showing greater acceptance of premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexuality compared to rural residents.
How does membership in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) influence sexual attitudes? Liu
CCP members often hold more conservative views on premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexuality than non-members.
What trends were observed regarding attitudes toward premarital, extramarital, and homosexual relationships? Liu
Between 2010 and 2021, attitudes became more permissive toward premarital sex and homosexuality but remained conservative regarding extramarital sex.
What factors contributed to the liberalization of sexual attitudes in China? Liu
- Economic modernization
- increased global cultural exposure
- improved education
- access to diverse information.
What does modernization theory suggest about sexual attitudes in China? Liu
It links China’s developmental progress to greater inclusivity and openness in public sexual attitudes.
