Napoleon: consulate

Question 1

How did the Consuls set to work on the new constitution?

Answer 1

Sieyes proposed that Napoleon should be the new figurehead.
Napoleon refused and argued there must be a First Consul, with complete control, in peace and in war, and he must be that Consul.
Sieyes wanted the other consuls to have an equal vote, but Napoleon insisted they should have only the right to express an opinion.

Question 2

How did Napoleon explain his reasons for seizing power?

Answer 2

To make the republic loved by its own citizens, respected abroad and feared by its enemies.
The new constitution was based upon the true principles of representative government and on the sacred rights of property, equality and liberty.
The powers it sets up will be strong and lasting.

Question 3

How did the constitution not really have universal suffrage?

Answer 3

The suffrage was so indirect as to be of little significance in relation to the idea of popular sovereignty.
The references to a constitution based on representative government were merely words.
Democratic involvement in the elections was minimal.
There was the appearance of male suffrage, but no elections, only presentation of candidates suitable for appointment as deputies, and the choice was restricted to notables.

Question 4

What was the role of the First consul?

Answer 4

Appoints and removes ministers, initiates all legislation, can declare war and make peace.
Nominates the council of state and Senate.

Question 5

What was the Council of State?

Answer 5

30-40 members chosen by the first Consul.
They nominate all central and local officials and help to initiate legislation.

Question 6

What was the senate?

Answer 6

60 members aged over 40 nominated by First Consul.
This was increased to 80.
They guarded the constitution.

Question 7

What was the Tribunate?

Answer 7

100 members aged over 25, able to discuss legislation but cannot vote on it.

Question 8

What was the Legislature?

Answer 8

300 members aged over 30, able to vote on all legislation in secret, unable to discuss it.

Question 9

Who were the rest of the constitution?

Answer 9

6000 notables, the 10% chosen from the group below.
60,000 Departmental List, chosen from below.
600,000 Communal List, chosen from below.
6,000,000 Frenchmen aged over 21 had the right to vote.

Question 10

How did Napoleon use the Senate?

Answer 10

The Senate had been intended by Sieyes as a brake on the executive, but under Napoleon it became an instrument of his personal power.
It was intended to be the guardian of the constitution, but was also able to amend it by Senatus Consultum.
Napoleon used this procedure extensively from January 1801 onwards to block the wishes of the Tribunate and the Legislature.

Question 11

Who were the members of the Senate?

Answer 11

Senators were appointed for life, with a substantial salary.
They were rewarded with gifts of land and money, and enjoyed considerable prestige.
Membership increased from 80 to 140 by 1814, with most additional members directly appointed by Napoleon.
It developed into a largely consultative body anxious to please Napoleon.

Question 12

What was the Breton Chouan Bomb Plot?

Answer 12

December 1800, a former Breton Chouan planned to explode a bomb nearby Napoleon.
He was badly shaken but unharmed.
The Senate realised the fragile nature of the constitution depended on Napoleon.
As well as to demonstrate their gratitude, they offered him consulship for life, with the right to nominate his successor.

Question 13

What happened with the plebiscite?

Answer 13

The decision of consulship was approved by plebiscite, and while there is no direct evidence of tampering, it is known that officials sent in results they thought would be pleasing to their superiors.
Sometimes they put a simple ‘yes’ where no election had been held.
Napoleon’s power increased immediately through his control of an enlarged senate, which became responsible for everything not provided by the constitution.

Question 14

How did the Tribunate and Legislature lose power?

Answer 14

The enlarged senate greatly reduced the power of these representative bodies.
They lost importance and met less frequently.
The Tribunate was severely purged for criticising the Civil Code, and with a much reduced membership, became just a show.
The Legislature’s credibility was reduced for being ‘packed’ by Napoleon with ‘safe’ men, who would not oppose him.

Question 15

What was the Duc d’Enghien assassination plot?

Answer 15

In 1804, this member of the Bourbon royal family was alleged to be involved in a plot to overthrow Napoleon by murdering him and taking over.
Napoleon ordered his kidnapping and was found, on inadequate evidence, guilty of conspiracy, and executed.

Question 16

How did Napoleon use the assassination attempt?

Answer 16

In the Bonaparte family it was talked of making the consulship hereditary to provide for smooth succession and survival of the constitution following an untimely death of Napoleon.
A third plebiscite approved the change, with the government adding in half a million ‘yes’ voted on behalf of soldiers who might have otherwise opposed.

Question 17

What was Napoleon’s new marriage?

Answer 17

Despite his fondness for her, Napoleon decided that a divorce to Josephine was essential, as she was too old to provide children.
In 1810 the church unwillingly agreed to their annulment.
The next year, Napoleon the King of Rome was born, the succession seemed assured.

Question 18

Why was there economic reform?

Answer 18

There was a great need to establish financial stability, with there being only a few thousand francs in the treasury.

Question 19

What were key appointments - economic reform?

Answer 19

Napoleon knew he lacked the skills to manage the economy and so appointed Gaudin as Minister of Finance 1799.
Barbe Marbois was appointed to the Treasury.
Both these appointments brought stability, and also meant there was a clear distinction between the roles.

Question 20

How were Direct Taxes reformed?

Answer 20

Collection of taxes was taken away from local authorities and became the responsibilty of a centralised organisation.
Land tax remained one of the largest forms of revenue.
Land registries were made more efficient and a more detailed tax register drawn up.
These made sure revenue was more evenly spread but did little to increase income.

Question 21

How were indirect taxes reformed?

Answer 21

Many of these had been abolished by the Constituent Assembly, however facing mounting defecits, the Directory had reintroduced them on certain goods.
This was expanded further by Napoleon, among the goods taxed would be tobacco, alcohol and in 1806 salt was added.
This revived memories of the hated gabelle under the ancien regime.
Revenue from indirect taxes increase by 400% from 1806-12, accounting for 25% of the revenue.

Question 22

How was the Bank of France reformed?

Answer 22

Napoleon created this bank which, although it was a private enterprise with shareholders, had many public functions.
For example, this bank was solely responsible for printing paper currency.
Napoleon put much stricter controls on this bank after a risky business venture failed.

Question 23

How was currency reformed?

Answer 23

On 28th March 1803 Napoleon introduced the franc de germinal, which became the basis of his monetary system.
The new gold and silver coins established a standard ratio of gold to silver at 1:15.5.
Each franc coin would weigh 5 grams of silver.
There was standardisation in the coinage.
All other coins would be strictly minted to these ratios.

Question 24

How was war economically reformed?

Answer 24

State income was increasing but the growing military expenditure put pressure on the economy.
The amount being spent on the military increased to 1000 million Francs by 1813.
The government made up for this by forcing defeated countries to pay a financial penalty.
This ended following military defeats in 1813-14.

Question 25

How did Napoleon use bribery?

Answer 25

Napoleon knew he had to attract support from powerful political and military figures.
He attempted to do this by appealing to people’s self interests, vanity, and desire for status by lavishing gifts of land, money, titles, honours and government appointments.
This created a group of powerful individuals who had a strong interest in preserving Napoleon’s regime.

Question 26

What was the Legion of Honour?

Answer 26

Created in 1802, this was divided into 15 cohorts each comprising 350 legionaries, 30 officers, 20 commandants and 7 grand officers.
Recipients of this honour each recieved a special decoration and a small annual award.

Question 27

What were the new titles?

Answer 27

In 1808 Napoleon started to create a new nobility.
Grand dignatories became princes, archbishops became counts, mayors of large towns became barons and members of the legion called themselves Chevaliers.
If the recipients had a large enough income the titles could become hereditary.
In total about 3500 noble titles were given out, many to members of the military.

Question 28

What are Senatoreries?

Answer 28

These were large grants of large country estates to members of the Senate.
This came with a large residence and an annual income of 25,000 Francs, as well as this they were appointed prefect of an entire region.

Question 29

What were Napoleon’s personal gifts?

Answer 29

More than 5000 presents of enough money to buy a house in Paris and to live there in comfort were made to army officers, government officials, and members of the new nobility.

Question 30

What is the Imperial Nobility?

Answer 30

Between 1804 and 1808 members of the Imperial Court were given new titles such as Grand Dignatories, Grand Officers for top officials, down to the lesser titles for lower dignatories like the prefects of the palace.
Some of the titles brought with them large estates.
18 outstanding generals were also given the titles Marshals of France.

Question 31

How was the judiciary changed?

Answer 31

Judges, instead of being elected, were appointed by the government for life and were kept subservient and loyal by a combination of close supervision and a system of purges.
A new hierarchy of judicial tribunals was set up.
The criminal, commericial and penal codes were updated like the civil code.
In 1810 a system of arbitrary imprisonment without trial was reintroduced, though never extensively used, as house arrest was more usual.

Question 32

Who was Joseph Fouche?

Answer 32

The minister of police who was a ruthless and feared figure involved in many plots and conspiracies, responsible for policing and internal security.

Question 33

How were police and prefects spies?

Answer 33

They acted as trained spies, imposed censorship, set up surveillance of possible subversives, searched for army deserters and organised raids on areas believed to be sheltering draft-dodgers (avoiding conscription) or enemy agents.

Question 34

Who assisted the prefects and police?

Answer 34

Gendarmes assisted in the maintenance of law and order.
In 1810, there were 18,000 stationed throughout France.
Reports were submitted daily to Napoleon by Fouche.
Each department had a prefect assisted by a sub-prefect. Other local officials such as mayors were nominated by the prefect.
As well as tax collection, conscription, prefects were expected to spread propaganda, monitor public opinion and report any suspicious political activity.

Question 35

How much political opposition did the regime meet?

Answer 35

With such well-organised surveillance it is unsuprising that the regime met with little serious opposition.
Made especially as its potential leaders, notables, intellectuals and members of the bourgeoisie, were increasingly tempted into allying themselves with the government in the hope of reward.

Question 36

What was the Civil Code?

Answer 36

Napoleon formed a new civil code on the 21 March 1804.
The code recognised the legal rights of those who had brought confiscated land from the Church and nobility.
This was an attempt to bind them in to maintaining the regime.
The system of inheritance of an estate introduced during the revolution - partage, where it was divided equally - was confirmed.

Question 37

What gains of the revolution did the civil code maintain?

Answer 37

It maintained the abolition of feudalism, the removal of the priveleged position of the church within the state, freedom of conscience and equality before the law.
But it was also illiberal and restrictive.

Question 38

How was the Civil Code restrictive?

Answer 38

Napoleon was intent on strengthening the authority of the husband and father, who could send an adulterous wife or defiant child to prison.
Divorce was made very difficult and expensive.

Question 39

What were the most illiberal measures of the civil code?

Answer 39

Slavery was reintroduced in the French colonies.
All workmen were made subject to close police supervision through the use of the Livret (permit and record of employment), without which employment was impossible.

Question 40

How was the French press changed?

Answer 40

Napoleon expected the French press to deliver all official propaganda.
He was very aware of the press’s power to undermine his regime so in 1800 reduced the number of political journals in Paris from 73 to 9.
The remaining were left short of reliable news and were forbidden to discuss controversial topics.
Their editors were forced to rely on articles written by Napoleon or his ministers for their news.
In 1809 censors were appointed to each paper and in 1810 provincial papers were reduced to one per department.
In 1811 only 4 of the Parisian papers remained and were made subject to police supervision.

Question 41

How was publication restricted?

Answer 41

Up to 1810, all books, plays, lectures and posters were sent daily to Napoleon.
Publishers had to put forward a copy of the book before publication to police headquaters.
Over half the printing presses were closed and publishers were forced to take out a license and swear an oath of loyalty to the government.
Booksellers were strictly controlled and could be punished by death if their material was subversive.
Some authors were exiled for criticising the government.

Question 42

How was the wider cultural field restricted?

Answer 42

Dramatists were forbidden from mentioning any historical event that may reflect adversely on the present regime.
Many theatres closed down, others operated under licence and were restricted to small officially sanctioned plays.

Question 43

How were artists used?

Answer 43

Napoleon used the talents of sculptors, architects and artists to project his talent through paintings, monuments and pillars on a grand scale.
Artists such as David and Ingres were employed as State propagandists, depicting him as a romantic hero-figure, or a supreme imperial authority, often complete with toga and wreath.
David was given responsibility for supervising all paintings produced in France.

Question 44

What were Napoleon’s beliefs of the education system?

Answer 44

To provide the state with a ready supply of civillian officials and administrators and loyal and disciplined army officers, recruiting these from the sons of the property-owning classes.
To bind the nation closer together, an aim that could only be fufilled if the government took direct central control over the system.

Question 45

How did Napoleon do education for ordinary people?

Answer 45

It was neglected, all that was considered necessary was a simple moral education and basic literacy and numeracy.
This was provided in primary schools run by the church, by the local community, or by individuals.
Napoleon often declared his belief in equal opportunities for all according to ability and irrespective of birth or wealth, but generally failed to ensure this was carried out in education.
Education for girls was not a priority, saying marriage is their destiny.

Question 46

How did Napoleon change secondary education?

Answer 46

In 1802 Napoleon replaced the ineffective system of schools set up during the convention, the ecoles centrales, with the more centrally controlled lycees for the sons of the priveleged.
These new schools, eventually 45, were staffed by instructors chosen by Napoleon.
The State provided 6400 scholarships to these school, with 2400 for the sons of soldiers and government officials.
The remaining were for competing pupils from the best of the remaining secondary schools.
In reality these were almost entirely restricted to the sons of notables.

Question 47

How did Napoleon control the schools?

Answer 47

The government-appointed teachers would deliver a common syllabus from identical textbooks.
Conditions were strict with military discipline operating.
So tightly controlled was the system that Napoleon boasted that he knew exactly what every pupil in France was studying from the time of day.
The main aim was to train France’s future civil servants and army officers.

Question 48

What was the Imperial University?

Answer 48

Set up 1808, its tightly controlled curricula aimed to provide loyal teachers for the State secondary schools, which operated by its permission and under its authority.
Total obedience was demanded by the university from its member teachers, who had to take an oath of loyalty to their superiors.
Lessons were standardised, and what was taught was dictated in accordance with the needs and demands of the government.

Question 49

What were the agreements of the Concordat?

Answer 49

Signed 15 July 1801:
The separation of the Church and State, which had been one of the main policies of the revolution, was to end.
The Catholic Church recognised the revolution and agreed no attempt would be made to recover their land.
A state-controlled church was established, and its clergy became paid civil servants, appointed by the government and bound by oath.
Catholic worship should be freely exercised but there would also be toleration of other religions.

Question 50

What are the organic articles?

Answer 50

The Concordat was published by Napoleon April 1802 as part of a wide-ranging ecclesiastical law on to which he tacked the so-called organic articles.
These were a series of articles limiting in every way papal control over the French bishops, while also increasing state control over the activities of the clergy.

Question 51

Why did tensions between church and state remain?

Answer 51

Napoleon angered Pope Pius VII by ordering that the church throughout the empire should celebrate 16 August as St Napoleon’s day, unceremoniously removing from the calendar of saints the existing occupant of that date.
The cult of the Emperor had reached its peak.
It was clear the church was no longer the priveleged first estate it had been under the ancien regime.
There was little prospect it would ever be restored.

Question 52

Why did Napoleon seek rapprochement?

Answer 52

He appreciated the power of religion to act as the social bond cementing together a divided people.
Napoleon saw the importance and benefits in bringing an end to the schism between clergy who had sworn allegiance to the revolution and those who had not.
Religious peace would help to bring political and social peace to France, as Catholicism had become identified with the royalist cause and need instead to be with the people as a whole.

Question 53

What was religion like in the 1800s?

Answer 53

Since 1789 the Catholic Church and the French State had been in conflict.
During the Directory there had been a revival of Catholic public worship that no government could have safely ignored or opposed.
Napoleon’s own attitude to religion was ambivalent.