Government by terror 1793-94 Flashcards

1
Q

What was the first period of Terror?

A

Government by Terror came into being because of the need to organise the Republic against internal and external threats to its survival.
The first began with the attack on Tuileries on 10 August 1792, included the September Massacres, and came to an end with the Battle of Valmy.

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2
Q

What was the second period of Terror?

A

The second began with the Journee of 31 May to 2 June 1793, when some Girondins deputies were arrested, and ended with the execution of Robespierre and his supporters in July 1794.
During the start of this second terror, French armies were doing badly and the country once again faced invasion.
Its end came shortly after the victory of Fleurus in June 1794, which secured France’s frontiers.

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3
Q

What were the aims of the CPS?

A

Danton and Robespierre spoke of the need for winning the people’s support.
They felt this could be done by economic concessions.
On 4 May a maximum price was fixed for grain and later in the month it became compulsory for the wealthy to loan money to the government.

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4
Q

What did Barere, a leader of the Plain, tell the convention to recognise?

A

In a state of emergency, no government could rule by normal methods.
The Bourgeoisie should not isolate itself from the people, whose demands should be satisfied.
Since it was vital that the Bourgeoisie retain control of this alliance with the people, the Convention must take the initiative by introducing the necessary measures.

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5
Q

What was the machinery of Terror?

A

Against the mounting crisis - military defeat, civil war, severe economic problems and anti-republican opposition, which threatened to overturn the revolution, the convention passed a range of measures March - May 1793 to deal with these problems and ensure its survival.

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6
Q

What were the objectives of the machinery of Terror?

A

To identify, place under observation and punish suspects.
To make government more effective and ensure that its orders were carried out.
To meet at least some of the economic demands of the sans culottes.

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7
Q

What was the Committee of General Security?

A

Had the task of rooting out all anti-republican opposition.
They had overall responsibility for police security, surveillance and spying.
They set up a Revolutionary Tribunal on March 1793, in Paris, to try counter-revolutionary suspects.
It was intended to prevent massacres like those of September 1792.
The tribunal was to become one of the main instruments of the Terror.

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8
Q

What were Representatives-on-mission?

A

Jacobin deputies were sent to the provinces to reassert government authority, owing to the resistance to conscription and the suspicion of generals after Dumoriez’s defection.
They had almost unlimited powers over the department administrations and the armies were intended to begin reasserting central control.
Plots by royalists were blamed for the Vendee Rebellion, so Comites de surveillance were set up in each commune.
They provided many victims for the revolutionary tribunal.

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9
Q

What was the summary execution decree?

A

This provided for the trial and execution of armed rebels within 24 hours of capture.
These trials were held without a jury and there was no appeal.
They condemned many more victims than the revolutionary tribunal did.
Very harsh laws were passed against emigres, their property was confiscated by government officials and they were to be executed if they returned to France.

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10
Q

What was the Committee of Public Safety?

A

The CPS was set up April 1793.
Its purpose was to supervise and speed up the activities of ministers, whose authority it superseded.
The CPS was not a dictatorship, it depended on the support of the Convention, which approved its powers each month.

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11
Q

Who did the CPS compose of?

A

Danton wanted a committee without extremists.
Of the 9 members selected, 7 were from the Plain, and only 2 were Jacobins, including Danton, and no Girondins.

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12
Q

What was the lead up to the overthrow of the Girondins?

A

On 26 May Robespierre came down on the side of the sans culottes when he invited the people to place themselves in insurrection against the corrupt Girondin deputies.
On 31 May a rising began which spread rapidly when news of the overthrow of the Jacobins in Lyon reached Paris on 1 June.

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13
Q

What were the events of the overthrow of the Girondins?

A

On 2 June 1793 80,000 National Guardsmen surrounded the convention and directed their cannon at it. They demanded the expulsion of the Girondins from the Assembly and a maximum price imposed on all essential goods.
When the deputies tried to leave they were forced back.

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14
Q

Why were the Girondins overthrown?

A

To avoid a massacre or a seizure of power by a revolutionary commune, the convention was compelled to agree to the arrest of Girondin deputies and ministers.
Following the purge of the Girondins, a young royalist, Corday, assassinated Marat in the vain belief this would end the revolution.

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15
Q

What is the Federal Revolt?

A

In many departments the rebels resented the influence of Paris and its Commune over the Convention and the power of the Jacobins.
Marseille inhabitants turned against the local club.
Encouraged by these events, anti-Jacobins supporters took control of many other towns, including Lyon and Bordeaux.

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16
Q

What was the New Committee of Public Safety?

A

After 2 June most deputies feared and distrusted the Jacobins because of the way they had dealt with the Girondin.
However, they did not want the Republic overthrown by domestic or foreign enemies, so for the next 14 months, were reluctant accomplices of the Jacobin minority.
A new CPS was formed between July and September 1793, the 12 members were all either Jacobins or plain.
The committee was to become the first strong government since the revolution began.

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17
Q

How did the new CPS differ?

A

It had more Jacobins.
Nearly all were young, and there was no chairman.
These changes made the Terror more likely as the members were more radical and extreme, and were younger, so were more likely to carry out bad actions.

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18
Q

What effect did Robespierre joining the CPS have?

A

Joined July 1793.
His influence in the Jacobin club and the Commune was expected to provide a link between the Jacobins and sans culottes.
He never had much support in the convention however and many could not stand his narrow self-righteousness.
He did not however seek power or wealth for himself.

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19
Q

What role had the sans culottes played in the revolution?

A

The storming of the bastille.
Brought the king to Paris during the October Days.
After the National Guard was opened up to passive citizens, their influence grew.
This was important in the overthrow of the monarchy and from the summer of 1792 to spring of 1794 no one could control Paris without their support.
They were responsible for the Journee which brought the Jacobins to power.

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20
Q

What were the main characteristics of the Sans Culottes?

A

Hatred of the aristocracy and anyone of great wealth.
Egalitarianism - addressed everyone as citizen and ancien regime titles were rejected.
Wore red caps, originally associated with free slaves, symbolising the equality of all citizens.
Passionate anti-clericalism - as priests had joined in taking wealth.
Believed in direct democracy.

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21
Q

What were the concessions made to the sans culottes?

A

Because of the power and influence of the sans culottes the CPS made concessions to meet their demands:
A new constitution and Declaration of Rights - stated the right of people to work, have assistance in time of need and be educated, the right of insurrection and all adult males to have the vote.
The sections demanded conscription.
Economic concessions - the maximum legislation to fix prices, making the hoarding of goods a capital offence.

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22
Q

What was the levee en masse?

A

Decreed 23 August, all the resources of the nation were to be used to help France to win the war.
This included conscription of nearly 500,000 men aged 18 - 25.
They had to be fed, armed and trained, so all the human and material resources of the nation were put at the government’s disposal.
It was very successful in the short term, without it victory would have been impossible.

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23
Q

What did the enrages do?

A

They demanded action from the government about the deteriorating economic situation.
Roux wanted the Convention to deal immediately with the starvation and poverty.
When it did nothing, he denounced it.

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24
Q

Who were the Enrages?

A

An extreme revolutionary group led by Roux.
His followers were wage earners, casual labourers, the poor and unemployed.
As a priest in one on the poorest quarters of Paris, Roux was shocked by the starvation.
These were people for whom the revolution had brought little material improvement to their standard of living.

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25
Q

What did Roux propose about economic terror?

A

He demanded the execution of hoarders who pushed up the price of grain and a purge of ex-nobles from the army.
Robespierre wanted to destroy him, because he was threatening the commune and convention with direct action in the streets.
The Journee of 5 September adopted a more extreme approach to ensure the movement of food into Paris, where Roux was very influential.

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26
Q

Why was the armee revolutionnaire formed?

A

On September 4 a crowd gathered to demand bread and higher wages.
The following day, urged by Roux, it marched on the Convention, forcing it to accept a series of radical measures.
The Sections imposed on the Convention the proclamation of the Terror as normal.
The Convention immediately authorised the formation of the armee revolutionnaire.

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27
Q

What is the armee revolutionnaire?

A

Consisted mainly of Sans Culottes.
The purpose was to confront counter-revolutionary activity and organise the defence of the Republic.
56 armies were sent to the provinces between September and December 1793.

28
Q

What is the purpose of the armee revolutionnaire?

A

To ensure the food supplies of Paris and the large provincial cities.
Round up deserters, hoarders, refractory priests, religious fanatics, political suspects and royalist rebels.
Mobilise the nation’s resources for the war effort by confiscating church sliver and bells.
Establish revolutionary justice in the south and west, which showed little enthusiasm for the revolution.

29
Q

How successful was the armee revolutionnaire?

A

The Parisian army was remarkably successful in supplying Paris with bread until the spring of 1794, and so helped to preserve the revolution.
The provincial armies were successful in supplying major towns and the regular army.
Their success was unlikely to last because their numbers were small and met enormous hostility from the rural population.

30
Q

Who opposed the armee revolutionnaire?

A

There was great joy in the countryside when they were disbanded.
The CPS did not like them because they were anarchic and outside the control of the authorities.
They also disliked them because they created opposition to the Revolution by their heavy-handed methods in dealing with the peasants.

31
Q

What is the economic terror?

A

The convention passed a law that imposed the death penalty for hoarding food and other supplies.
The General Maximum was passed on 29 September 1793 to control prices.
It fixed the price of bread and many essential goods and services at 1/3 above the prices of June 1790.
Wages, which largely determined prices, were also fixed at 50% above the level in 1790.
When peasants refused to sell grain at the maximum price that was set, the government was compelled to requisition supplies.

32
Q

What was the impact of the maximum?

A

It set common people against each other.
Peasants hated it because the rate was often below the cost of production.
The Sans Culottes wanted it so that they could afford to buy bread.
When the Sans Culottes went to enforce the maximum in the provinces they clashed with the peasants and the conflict was deepened.

33
Q

What was the problem for the government with the maximum?

A

Farmers would simply stop sowing if they could not make profit.
The co-operation of the wealthy peasants, who controlled most of the harvest, was necessary.
They were the municipal councillors and tax collectors, who were expected to oversee requisitioning.

34
Q

How was the maximum imposed in the countryside?

A

There was no local revolutionary army in the countryside so the Maximum was imposed by the Rich.
To meet the concerns of farmers and other producers, the government revised prices upwards in February 1794, much to the disgust of the Sans Culottes.
In the short term this was successful: the towns and armies were fed and the assignats worth rose.

35
Q

What are the forms of political terror?

A

The official terror, controlled by the CPS and CGS, centred in Paris and whose victims came before the Revolutionary Tribunal.
The Terror in the areas of Federal revolt such as the Vendee and Lyon, where the worst atrocities took place.
The Terror in other parts of France, under the control of watch committee, representatives on mission and the revolutionary armies.

36
Q

Who was tried in the Revolutionary Tribunal?

A

A series of celebrity trials were held which were popular with the masses and removed those regarded as enemies of the Republic.
Their trial almost always ended in their execution.
Marie Antionette, 20 leading Girondins deputies and duke of Orleans were all executed.

37
Q

What was the provincial repression?

A

Troops moved through Marseille, Lyon and Toulon, shooting almost every peasant they met, burning farms, crops and killing their animals. Women were raped and mutilated.
The Vendee was left a depopulated wasteland.
Thousands who surrendered crammed the prisons, they could not be released in case they joined the rebels, and shot without trial.

38
Q

What was the Law of Suspects?

A

Passed September 1793.
The government delegated some of its powers to local revolutionary committees.
These were packed with fanatical Jacobins and their supporters.
Anyone suspected of counter-revolutionary activity and undermining the Republic could be arrested and held without trial indefinitely.
By 1793 most rural communes had one, it was the one permanent institution of the Terror.

39
Q

What was the impact of political terror?

A

Internal enemies were crushed.
It makes the Jacobins government unpopular.
Spread a feeling of fear throughout France.

40
Q

What is the extent of the Terror?

A

The official number of executions is 16,600, however this does not include the large number of deaths resulting from imprisonment, starvation, military action and repression.
The official victims were mainly peasants and urban workers.
The majority of the victims perished in the Vendee (estimated 80,000).
And in total 200,000 estimated.

41
Q

Why did dechristianisation occur?

A

Not official government policy, the driving force came from Sans Culottes in the Commune, armee revolutionnaire and representatives on mission.
They hated Catholicism, which they felt had betrayed the revolution and fomented the cause of counter-revolution.
It was a deliberate attempt to use the States resources to destroy Christianity.
The destruction of churches was a symbol of the revolutionaries determination to destroy everything connected with the ancien regime.

42
Q

What did the attack on churches look like?

A

Churches were closed, bells and silver removed, road shrines and crosses destroyed.
The Paris Commune stopped paying clerical salaries.
Notre Dame, Paris’ cathedral became the Temple of Reason.

43
Q

What was the attack on priests?

A

Priests were forced to renounce their priesthood and many were compelled to marry.
This brutal attempt to uproot Christian belief was deeply resented.
For many areas outside the war zones, dechristianisation was the aspect of Terror which most affected them.

44
Q

What was the revolutionary calendar?

A

Its aim was to emphasise the complete break with the past and its institutions, particularly the church.
And to remove any surviving traces of the ancien regime.

45
Q

What problems had the government overcome?

A

The Federal revolts had been crushed.
Food supplies were moving into towns and cities.
The values of the assignat was rising.
The defeat of rebels in the west effectively ended the civil war in the Vendee.
French armies were doing well in the war.
The CPS’s policy for defending France was proving successful.

46
Q

How was government authority restored?

A

The CPS decided that the general assemblies of the Sections should only meet twice a week.
In October, the CPS passed a decree that government was to be ‘revolutionary until the peace’.
This meant the suspension of the constitution of 1793.
Although this was planned to be a temporary measure, the constitution was never put into operation.

47
Q

Why was it likely the government and Sans Culottes would come into conflict?

A

There was administrative confusion in many departments in September 1793 as local revolutionary committees, revolutionary armies and representatives on mission, such as Fouche and Carrier, interpreted the law, or ignored it, on a whim.
The government could not tolerate anarchy indefinitely as it undermined its authority.
Yet it had to act carefully in case it upset its supporters among sans culottes.

48
Q

What is the Law of Frimaire?

A

Passed 4 December 1793, it established revolutionary government.
It gave the committees full executive powers:
The CGS was responsible for police and internal security. The Revolutionary Tribunal, as well as the surveillance committees, came under its control.
The CPS had more extensive powers. In addition to controlling ministers and generals, it was to control foreign policy and purge and direct local government.

49
Q

How did the CPS take control?

A

The chief officials of the communes and departments were placed under Agents Nationaux.
The representatives on mission, sent out by the convention in April, were now put firmly under the CPS’s control.
All revolutionary armies, except in Paris, were disbanded.
The new policies resulted in: the end of anarchy, breaking the power of the Sans Culottes, providing France with its first strong government since 1787.

50
Q

What did the new constitution reject?

A

It rejected many of the principles of 1789.
The constitutions of 1791 and 93 had established decentralisation, elections to all posts, the separation of legislative from executive power and impartial justice.
This was all reversed.
Robespierre justified this by saying a dictatorship was necessary until foreign and internal enemies of the revolution were destroyed.
This was contrary to the ideas of democracy and people’s rights he had advocated before taking office.

51
Q

Why did Jacques Hebert oppose the government?

A

His newspaper demanded more hoarders should be executed and property redistributed.
This was very popular with the Sans Culottes.
Played a leading part in the dechristianisation campaign, which turned Catholics against the revolution.
This took power away from the CPS.
Robespierre disliked this.

52
Q

How did the government react to Hebert’s opposition?

A

There were few Herbertiste supporters in the convention, but many in the Cordeliers club, the commune, the Paris revolutionary army and the popular societies.
Hebert and 18 supporters were arrested when insurrection was called.
They were accused of being foreign agents wanting military dictatorship to restore the monarchy.
They were executed on 24 march 1794.

53
Q

How did the CPS take advantage of the situation to strengthen its dictatorship?

A

The Parisian revolutionary army was disbanded.
The Cordeliers club was disbanded.
All popular societies forced to disband.
The Commune was purged and filled with supporters of Robespierre.
Representatives on mission, responsible for some of the worst atrocities in the provinces were recalled to Paris.

54
Q

Why did George Danton oppose the government?

A

Danton and his followers wanted to halt the Terror and the centralisation imposed in December.
To do this, Danton argued that the war would have to come to an end, as it was largely responsible for the Terror.

55
Q

How did the government react to Danton’s opposition?

A

Danton had a much larger following in the convention than Hebert, and regarded as a much more serious threat by the CPS.
They felt his demands would allow for a return to the monarchy.
He was brought before the revolutionary tribunal on 5 April and executed along with many followers, including Desmoulins.

56
Q

What is the Great Terror?

A

It was centred on Paris 10 June - 27 July.
The government in may 1794 abolished the provincial revolutionary tribunals - all enemies now would face trial in front of Paris’ revolutionary tribunal.
Approximately 1594 were executed.
Robespierre had no desire to protect the innocent, if this meant the dangerous enemies of the revolution escaped.

57
Q

What is the Law of Prairial?

A

Following assassination attempts on Robespierre and Couthon, passed 10 June.
Under it, no witnesses were to be called and judgment was to be decided by the ‘conscience of the jurors’, rather than evidence.
This removed any resemblance of a fair trial.
Many of the victims were nobles and clergymen, and wealthier bourgeoisie.

58
Q

Why did the Catholics withdraw support from Robespierre?

A

Robespierre loathed the dechristianisation campaign of the sans culottes, partly on religious grounds and partly because it upset Catholics and created enemies of the revolution.
He created the Cult of the Supreme Being, 7 May 1794.
This new religion pleased no one:
Catholics as it ignored their doctrine, ceremonies and the pope.
Most of the CGS, as they felt it was the first step towards the reintroduction of Catholicism.
And felt Robespierre was setting himself up as the high priest of the new religion.

59
Q

Why was Robespierre’s popularity with the sans culottes falling?

A

Execution of the Hebertistes.
Dissolution of popular societies.
The end of direct democracy in the Sections.
The raising of the Maximum on prices in March, which led to inflation and fall in the assignat to only 36% of its original value.
The imposing of the Maximum on wages, 23 July.
Wages fell by half, and heightened discontent among sans culottes, wage earners.

60
Q

Why did people question whether the Terror was still needed?

A

Spring 1794, all foreign troops had been driven off French soil, lost territory in Belgium had been recaptured, and armies moved into the Rhineland.
Internal enemies had been defeated and government authority restored over all parts of the country.
Was it still necessary to apply the ruthless policies of the Terror now that the threats to the republic were gone.

61
Q

Why did the CPS and CGS fall out?

A

In April, the CPS set up its own police bureau, with Robespierre in charge, to prosecute dishonest officials.
The CGS resented this interference with its own control of security, and the two committees became rivals.

62
Q

Why did some CPS remove support from Robespierre?

A

Two members, Billaud and Collot, had been attached to Hebert, and so felt threatened of Robespierre.
Many of the CPS were suspicious of him, especially after the Cult of the Supreme Being, and he was losing support among former allies.

63
Q

What is the Coup of Thermidor?

A

Robespierre had taken a month of rest, on return on the 26 July, he addressed the Convention, attacking colleagues who, he claimed, were plotting against the government.
When asked to name them, he declined.
This led to his undoing as any denunciation by Robespierre would have resulted in arrest and death.
Moderates like Carnot and terrorists all felt threatened, so conspired to plot against him, before he could order their arrest.

64
Q

What is Robespierre’s arrest?

A

The Convention voted to arrest Robespierre and some others, on 27 July.
They were taken to prisons controlled by the Commune, who Robespierre was still popular with.
They released them and ordered the National Guard of the Sections to mobilise, but the militants could not be inspired by the Jacobins or Commune.
There was then confusion as the Convention also called on the National Guard to support it against the Commune.

65
Q

What is Robespierre’s execution?

A

Robespierre and his followers were arrested again, and executed 28 July, and over the next few days 100 Commune members followed him.
The Coup of Thermidor meant the rejection of government by Terror, which is now dead, although violence would continue.

66
Q

What were the ‘positive’ gains of the Terror?

A

The Jacobin dictatorship ensured the defeat of the Republic’s internal and external enemies.
Many of the gains made since 1789 were preserved and extended.
The Republic created a highly motivated citizen army, which laid the foundations for further conquests in Europe.

67
Q

What were the negative aspects of the Terror?

A

There was massive loss of life and devastation in the Vendee and areas of Federalist revolt.
The extremist policies of the CPS and CGS alienated many catholic and bourgeoise.
The Sans culottes became disillusioned with the extremist policies of the revolutionary government.