Names/Dates (SL) Flashcards

Question

Ross, Amabile and Steinmetz (1977)

Answer 1

**USE FOR: fundamental attribution error Aim: Investigate whether knowledge of distinguished social roles in a quiz would affect participants' judgement of people's expertise. Participant type 1: Questioner Participant type 2: Contestant - Participants were either a questioner or contestant in a quiz game - Questioner created 10 questions based on their own knowledge - Contestants took the quiz - Participants were all asked to rate each others' general knowledge Results: Contestants consistently rated questioners' general knowledge as superior (only looked at internal factors when rating the questioners due to their status as a questioner, demonstrating FAE) Evaluation: + Questioners were to create questions based on their own knowledge, a good set up for FAE - Sampling bias (usage of University students) - Ecological validity

Answer 2

**USE FOR: self-serving bias (SSB) - Gave math questions to children in pairs - Asked who did better Results: Those who worked with friends didn't demonstrate SSB and gave credit to their friends when successful; those not working with their friends were more likely to demonstrate SSB (NOTE THIS AS AN EXCEPTION)

Answer 3

**USE FOR: self-serving bias (SSB); etic concept Found that Americans often attribute failures to situation, while Japanese attributed failure to lack of ability (internal/personal) Note this as a demonstration of modesty bias (opposite of self-serving bias) **WATCH GENERALIZATION

Answer 4

**USE FOR: social identity theory; sociocultural principle (group memberships) aka Social Identity theory (SIT) Definition of self based on social group. In combination with the value and emotional significance attached to a membership. Deals with ingroups (group members; positive traits) and outgroups (non-group members; negative traits). These comparisons and distinctions are highly valued. - Strive to maintain positive self-concept as well as a positive social identity. - Positive social identity can either be established from a positive outcome for an ingroup, or a negative outcome for an outgroup (discrimination)

Answer 5

**USE FOR: social identity theory; origins of violence; realistic conflict theory aka Robbers' Cave expriment Aim: Demonstrate Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT) NOTE THAT THIS IS NOT MEANT FOR SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, BUT IT DOES STILL DEMONSTRATE IT (needs added explanation) - Used middle-class, 11-year-old boys - Split kids into two groups 1st week: Isolation from other group 2nd week: Introduction to other group; incorporated competitions and prizes Following weeks: Insertion of problems that affected both groups (and required them to cooperate with each other) - Partially demonstrates discrimination of outgroups - SIT argues that conflict arises purely from group membership and competition for resources is not needed. Also argues that personal self-esteem lowers if the group loses access to resources/is looked down upon (cause of violence) EVALUATION: + High ecological validity - Cannot generalize (due to sample) - Setting young kids into a dangerous situation

Answer 6

**USE FOR: social identity theory; sociocultural principle (group memberships) Aim: Investigate if boys would display ingroup favouritism and intergroup discrimination (by merely categorizing them into different groups) - Used 64, 14/15-year-old boys - Kids arrived in groups of 8 (kids in groups were all from the same "house"; all knew each other prior to experiment) - All were shown forty clusters of varying numbers/dots flashed on a screen - Asked to estimate number of dots in each cluster - Told that some people consistently "overestimate"/"underestimate" the number of dots - Participants were given a "score" by experimenters - Were told that they were being grouped by be basis of judgement they made, however they were all actually randomly assigned ("overestimaters"/"underestimators") - Were told to give other participants points, which would then be converted into real money after the experiment. They did not know the identity of who they would give points to, but they did know if they were an "overestimator" or an "underestimator" Results: Found that a large majority gave more money to those within their ingroup rather than outgroup. Boys adopted ingroup favouritism. + Demonstrates SIT - Ecological validity issues; demand characteristics - Participants may have seen it as a competitive game, which could have influenced the results

Answer 7

**USE FOR: sociocultural principle (culture) - Modified Asch's experiment on conformity (had one real participant with six other confederates; asked to guess which line, A B or C, was the same length as a line on another page; confederates were tasked with purposefully saying the wrong answer to see if the real participant would conform) - Used two different cultures: Temne culture (Sierra Leone; rely on agriculture for survival) and Inuit (Baffin Islands, Canada; live on hunting and fishing) Results: Temne people showed a higher degree of conformity than Inuits, because Temne culture was based more around helping the community with agriculture, while Inuits track and hunt animals to feed their own (learn independence).

Answer 8

**USE FOR: sociocultural principle (social animals) - Performed focus-group interviews with adolescent girls in Brixton to study how girls described/evaluated themselves. Results: Had a positive view of "being from Brixton", contrasting the view of people living outside Brixton (example of creating a positive "social identity" based on group belonging).

Answer 9

**USE FOR: formation of stereotypes aka The Princeton Trilogy Aim: Investigate whether traditional social stereotypes had a cultural basis - Asked 100 male students from Princeton to choose five traits that characterized different ethnic groups (Americans, Jews, Japanese, African-American etc.); list of 84 words Results: Showed considerable agreement in stereotypes, especially of negative traits. Most were very positive to their own group (ingroup bias). Suggested that most of the students did not have any personal contact with members of the ethnic groups they had to rate (demonstrates that stereotypes are learned through media or gatekeepers)

Answer 10

**USE FOR: social learning theory - Children in Canada were found to have become significantly more aggressive two years after television was introduced to their town. EVALUATION + Indicates a link between watching violent television and aggressive behavior - Does not rule out the possibility of other explanations for aggressive behavior.

Answer 11

**USE FOR: explain social learning theory aka Social Learning theory Based on assumption that people learn behaviours, attitudes, emotional reactions, and norms through direct experiences but also through observing other humans (models). We learn consequences based on watching what happens to other humans. Can be direct (instruction) or indirect (role models demonstration) Four important factors in social/observational learning: 1. Attention (toward role model) 2. Retention (remembering) 3. Reproduction (needs skills to imitate behaviour) 4. Motivation (need to be motivated to imitate behaviour)

Answer 12

**USE FOR: social learning theory Aim: See if children would imitate the aggression of an adult model and whether they would imitate same-sex models more than opposite-sex models Condition 1: Aggressive Male Condition 2: Aggressive Female Condition 3: Non-aggressive Male Condition 4: Non-aggressive Female - 36 boys; 36 girls (mean age 4.4) from Stanford University Nursery School - Some watched an aggressive male/female, and some watched a non-aggressive male/female. Depending on the condition, they would either act aggressively toward a Bobo doll, or completely ignore it. Results: Chilren who had seen an aggressive model were significantly more aggressive (physically and verbally) in the second part of the experiment. They were also more likely to imitate same-sex models. Boys were more aggressive overall than the girls. EVALUATION: + Key to Social Learning theory; very good explanation - Not possible to conclude that children are ALWAYS more aggressive when they witness aggression - Ecological validity issues - Artificial aggression (demand characteristics) - Ethical issues

Answer 13

**USE FOR: compliance techniques aka Foot-in-the-door technique (FITD) Assumes agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a second, larger request. So, initially you make a small request and once the person agrees to this they find it more difficult to refuse a bigger one. - Most powerful when a person's self-image is related to the request, and if the requests are follow-ups of each other (related)

Answer 14

**USE FOR: foot-in-the-door technique (FITD) - Asked university students to conserve water in the dormitory showers. - Asked to sign a poster supporting shorter showers to save water. - Asked to do a survey asking them to think about their own water usage. - Students' shower time was monitored. Results: Students who had signed the poster and had done the survey spent an average of 3.5 minutes less in the shower than the rest in the dormitory (compliance with a small request increases likelihood of compliance; feel committed once they say "yes") EVALUATION: - Note that this example does not have the two requests as a follow-up to each other (which would make the request more likely to be fulfilled)

Answer 15

**USE FOR: compliance techniques aka Norm/Rule of reciprocity Dictates that we treat other people the way they treat us. People are socialized into returning favours and this powerful rule underpins compliance.

Answer 16

**USE FOR: door in the face technique Aim: Study effectiveness of the DITF technique Group 1: Control Group 2: Experimental - Researchers pretended to be representatives of the "County Youth Counselling Programme" - Asked college students (Group 1) if they were willing to chaperone a group of juvenile delinquents on a day trip to the zoo. - Asked another group (Group 2) if they were willing to sign up to work for two hours a week as counselors for a minimum of two years. - Asked this same group again if the students would be willing to chaperone a day trip to the zoo for juvenile delinquents. Results: 83% said no to the first request; many still refused the second request; 50% agreed to the third

Answer 17

**USE FOR: conformity to group norms Aim: Investigate conformity to perceived group norm - Used an autokinetic effect (optical illusion where the fixed pinpoint of light in a completely dark room appears to move because of the eye movements, but in reality, does not move) for this experiment. The purpose was that this would change for every individual person (as it was an illusion of the mind). It should be unique to everyone. - Asked participants to estimate the length in which the light moved. - Tested individually, then in groups Results: Individually, they all came up with their own norms. When they were put into groups, however, their norms changed (changed their answers to fit with the group answers, so for example, someone who initially guessed 6 in. changed their answer to 4 in. if the group came up with smaller answers)

Answer 18

**USE FOR: conformity to group norms Aim: Investigate whether perceived group pressure by a majority can influence a minority in an experimental set-up that is not ambiguous Group 1: Experimental Group 2: Control - Seven participants (one real participant; six confederates) sat around a table. Two cards (one with one line, the other with three labeled A, B and C) were set on the table. - Participants were asked to guess which line (A, B or C) was identical to the the line on the other card. - Confederates were either tasked with saying the correct answer or an incorrect answer. - 37 participants did the experiment alone, for comparison (control group) Results: 32% of participants complied with the wrong answers; 0.7% in control group made wrong answers EVALUATION: + High degree of control ensures cause-effect relationship + Results have been replicated + Can to an extent explain why people conform to social/cultural norms in real life - Watch cross-cultural differences (Berry 1967) - Ecological validity issues - Can only explain how a majority may influence conformity, not a minority - Deception was used; exposed participants to embarrassing procedures (ethical issues)

Answer 19

**USE FOR: cultural dimensions aka Cultural dimensions An aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures. - Culture should be seen as a collective phenomenon that may distinguish one group from another. - Knowing these dimensions could help facilitate international understanding and communication

Answer 20

**USE FOR: cultural dimensions Aim: Investigate the extent to which the dimension of individualism/collectivism influenced conflict resolution communication styles. Group 1: Japanese Group 2: American Group 3: Chinese Singaporeans (multinational companies) Group 4: Chinese Singaporeans (local companies) - 600 managers working in companies in Singapore were randomly selected for a survey. - Used to find possible relationships between scores on cultural dimension an conflict resolution style. Results: Higher the score in the individualist dimension made it more likely the manager was to adopt a dominating conflict resolution style. Generally the Americans were more likely to take on a dominating conflict resolution style, whereas the Asians were more likely to take on an avoidant conflict resolution style. EVALUATION: + Survey used a large representation of cross-cultural sample of managers so results can be generalized to a higher extent + Mostly reliable - Self-reports may cause some problems in reliability

Answer 21

**USE FOR: cultural dimensions Aim: Investigate differences in Chinese and Australian students' perception of conflict resolution in relation to: 1. Collectivist vs. individualist dimension 2. Long-term vs. short-term orientation - Qualitative cross-cultural study - Bachelor students of business and management (15 Chinese; 15 Australian) - Asked to analyse a potential conflict situation between a Japanese supervisor and a Canadian visiting assistant teacher. - Told to "discuss how this conflict might be resoled in China/Australia" Cultural differences: CHINESE: Concerned with face-saving (want good interpersonal relationships); important to pay attention to a relationship (offer gifts to help) AUSTRALIAN: Policies and procedures dictate the way employees and organizations operate rather than culture/tradition; saving face not as important (will push for mediation if there is a feeling of being treated unfairly) Results: Long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation was confirmed more so by the Chinese (in understanding behaviour). Generally confirmed, individualist vs. collectivist dimensions but not all data could be confirmed by this.

Answer 22

**USE FOR: emic/etic concepts EMIC CONCEPT: Emic research studies one culture alone to understand culture-specific behaviour. Researchers will attempt to study behaviour through the eyes of the people who live in that culture. Look at phenomenon (structure) and meaning (context). Focus on norms, values, motives, and customs, then interpret it using their own words. ETIC CONCEPT: Etic research compares psychological phenomena across cultures to find out what could be universal in human behaviour. Purpose is to compare and contrast cultural phenomena to investigate whether phenomena is culture-specific or universal.

Names/Dates (SL) Flashcards

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