Music EC-12 (Music Theory and Composition)

Question 1

Intervals

Answer 1

As the basis for any discussion of melodic or harmonic relationships, the interval refers to the measurement from pitch to pitch. The half step or semitone is the smallest movement and is the distance from one key to the next in the chromatic scale, such as C to C#. The whole step or tone refers to a full movement where the notes are 2 keys apart, such as from C to D. The half step and whole step act as the basis of measurement for intervallic discussions. These intervals are defined by quantity and quality. The quantity, or numeric value assigned to the note, is established by the musical arrangement, such as C D E F G A B. Any interval created with C and G will always be a fifth, regardless of any sharps or flats.

Question 2

Types of intervals

Answer 2

A major interval reduced by a half step creates a minor interval. A chromatic half step or semitone refers to the same note but with different accidentals, such as the C and C#. The diatonic half step refers to the half step between 2 different notes, such as C# to D. These notes may appear to be written identically on the staff but represent two different intervals based on the relationship of each note to the other. Augmented, or increased in size, and diminished, or reduced in size, major and perfect intervals rely on the half step to change the quality of the interval. Augmentation refers to the raising of the upper note or lowering of the bottom note by a half step in major and perfect intervals, such as with the C major 6th of C A being augmented to C A#.

Question 3

Intervallic quality

Answer 3

The interval quality refers to the comparison of the interval with its place within the major scale. The distance between the first and second note of a major scale is called a major second. In all scales, a half step exists between steps 3 and 4 and between 7 and 8, so that the distance between E and F and between B and C of the C major scale only measures a half step. All other steps are measured as whole steps. The half step is usually notated by a caret symbol or wedge- shaped mark (^) connecting steps 3 and 4 and steps 7 and 8. All relationships are based on the distance from the root to each pitch in the major scale. The 8 intervals are divided into perfect and major, where perfect intervals are unisons, fourth, fifths, and octaves and major intervals are seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths.

Question 4

Double augmentation and double diminution

Answer 4

Double augmentation occurs when the augmented upper note is raised a half step or the augmented lower note is lowered a half step, such as the C major 6th of C A being doubly augmented to Cb and A#. This double augmentation can also be indicated by an x placed to the left of the upper note so that the musician understands that the C A chord should be doubly augmented to sound like Cb A#.
Regarding diminution of minor and perfect intervals, the double diminution occurs when the diminished upper note is lowered a half step or the diminished lower note is raised a half step. The doubly diminished interval of the C major 6th C A would appear as C# Abb. Perfect intervals can immediately be diminished, but there is no such thing as a minor fifth.

Question 5

Enharmonic equivalents and inversions

Answer 5

Notes and intervals can have different names despite containing a similar number of half steps and creating the same sound. An augmented second above C is D# while a minor third above C is Eb. Both intervals are made up of the same number of half steps but will occur in separate situations. These intervals are considered enharmonic equivalents.
An interval becomes inverted when the order is reversed, so that the C major 6th of C A would be the minor third A C. Inverted major second chords equal minor seventh chords, and inverted major third chords equal minor sixth chords. Inverted major intervals are minor while inverted perfect intervals are still perfect.

Question 6

Interval abbreviations

Answer 6

Indicating intervals on staff paper can become a space issue so that abbreviations are often used to facilitate better reading of the composition. Perfect and major intervals are shown by the number, such as 5 for P5 or perfect fifth or 7 for M7 or major seventh. The word “sharp” or the “#” demonstrates augmentation, as well as “aug.” The word “flat” or “b” demonstrates diminution, as well as “min” or “m.” The diminution of a major interval can be written with 2 flats or texts, such as “bb” or dim7 or d7. The use of symbols or no descriptive text can indicate the presence of augmentation or diminution, but musicians should still be familiar with the shorthand to understand that b3 is minor while b5 is diminished.

Question 7

Naming intervals

Answer 7

The shorthand used by composers to indicate specific interpretations of intervals can be complex but is efficient. Naming intervals occurs with the symbol placed before the intervallic number, such as b7 and #4. The symbol follows the note when the note itself is affected without changing the interval, such as Ab and G#. Augmented fourth and diminished fifth intervals can also be referred to as tritone, which equals three whole steps, and is abbreviated TT. Intervals smaller than an octave are called simple, but compound intervals can be numbered higher than the octave and are usually seen as two smaller intervals composed of the octave and a third, for example. The letters P and M refer to perfect and major respectively, while lowercase m refers to minor.

Question 8

Consonant and dissonant intervals

Answer 8

An interval is classified as harmonic if both notes are played simultaneously, such as a Major third; on the other hand, an interval is classified as melodic if the notes are played in succession, such as the theme for NBC. Regardless of type, both intervals are measured using the same method. Harmonic and melodic intervals can be either consonant or dissonant. Consonant intervals occur when the two pitches create an agreeable sound, giving an impression of unity and cohesion. Dissonant intervals occur when the two pitches create a disagreeable sound that would suggest a need for resolution or modification. Dissonant intervals create tension and a need to resolve that instability to a consonance.

Question 9

Types of consonant intervals

Answer 9

There are three types of consonant intervals: perfect consonance (e.g., Perfect Octave or P8, Perfect Fifth or P5), imperfect consonance (e.g., Major Third or M3, Minor Third or m3, Major Sixth or M6, Minor Sixth or m6), and variable consonance (e.g., Perfect Fourth or P4). All other intervals are classified as dissonant. Since context determines the classification of intervals, enharmonic equivalents should not be given the same classification as their counterparts. For example, a minor third is consonant, but an augmented second is dissonant. The perfect fourth interval can be consonant or dissonant depending on the context since fourths at the roof of a key center are dissonant while fourths are consonant when in any other part of the chord.

Question 10

Triads

Answer 10

A chord is composed of 2 or more pitches that are played at the same time and is usually created by the stacking of thirds on top of each other. This style of chordal stacking is referred to as tertian harmony. The root is the note at the bottom of the stack of the third. The middle note is called the third after its relationship to the root , and the top note is called the fifth for the same reason. A triad is superimposed thirds or a stacking of notes that are separated by 2 pitches. The type of triad is defined by the quality of thirds in the triad. For a deeper sonority, the root should be played first and the third and fifth in succession so that the root is reinforced.

Question 11

Types of triads

Answer 11

Triads can best be defined in their relationship to the major triad. The major triad has notes 1, 3, and 5 of the key, such as C E G. The minor triad has a lowered second note, or the third in the triad, such as C Eb G. The augmented triad has a raised third note, or the fifth in the triad, such as C E G#. The diminished triad has a lowered second and third note, or the third and fifth of the triad, such as C Eb Gb. The fourth replaces the third in the suspended triad, such as C F G. The fourth chord does not have to resolve itself to the third, though it may. The suspended triad, or “sus chord,” is a stable and fixed harmonic structure in jazz and can be written as Csus or Csus4.

Question 12

Triad inversions

Answer 12

The major triad is referred to as the common chord, while the tonic, fourth, and fifth triads are referred to as primary triads. Triads can also be inverted so that the root note is played at the top or at the middle of the chord. The lowest note of the inverted triad is referred to as the bass. Though the root is the foundation for the triad, it is accepted that the bass as the bottom of the inverted triad cannot be the root. The sonority of the chord changes when the bass changes. For example, the C Major triad of C E G can be inverted to E G C and then again to G C E. The same rules of construction apply for minor, augmented, diminished, and suspended.

Question 13

Seventh chords

Answer 13

Used primarily in jazz musical construction, seventh chords are built by stacking 3 thirds on top of each other so that the overall distance from root to top note creates the interval of a seventh. Classical music generally uses the triad as the harmonic building block, and jazz musical stylings are traditionally in contrast to the more established musical formats. There are 7 frequently used types of seventh chords in jazz, all of which are specific and do not change: Major Seventh or M7, Minor/Major Seventh or –M7, Minor Seventh or m7, Half-Diminished Seventh or m7b5, Diminished Seventh or dim7, Dominant Seventh or 7, and Suspended Dominant Seventh or 7sus.

Question 14

Chord extensions

Answer 14

A chord can be extended by adding notes to increase the texture and dissonance and adhering to the same structure already established within the chord. The additional notes added to enrich the existing chord are referred to as extensions, tensions, or upper structures. The resulting sound is the extended chord, though this construction is also called polychord, polytonal chord, or polymodal chord. When extending the seventh chord, for example, the same pattern of the stacking of thirds should be applied. If the chord tone is raised or lowered, the quality is also subsequently raised or lowered. Alternation of extensions should not change the quality of the chord. Consider the following: Cmaj9 (C E G B D) to Cmaj9#11 (C E G B D F#) to cmaj13#11 (C E G B D F# A). Dissonance can be created without any context; a diminished seventh chord can be dissonant without any extensions.

Question 15

Upper structure

Answer 15

Upper structures usually refer to triads played in the upper register and have a different root than the triads played in the lower register where the upper structure is often a major or minor triad. This extended chord is referred to as the polychord and is very common over the dominant seventh chords. Polychords can, however, compliment other chordal structures. With the top 3 notes as B E G# in the E major triad, the G# acts as the diminished ninth and E is the thirteenth of the G7 chord. The specific notes maintain their own harmonic function within the G7 but are heard as 1 sound, which is really 2 keys at the same time. This combined sound of E and G major is polytonality. This format is often shown as one key over another, such as E7.

Question 16

Hybrid chords

Answer 16

Hybrid chords are also known as splash chords and are usually written as C/B so that C is the chord and B is the bass note. The structure of the splash chord demarcation is different than the polychord since the polychord is written as chord on top of chord with a line separating the two and the hybrid chord is written side-by-side with a slash mark. The polychord refers to one combined sound whereas the hybrid chord just indicates which note is the bass. With a bass note G, the splash cord Fmaj7/G has the chord Fmaj7 and sounds like the G13sus4. The resulting sound will add consonance or dissonance based on the surrounding notes and context of the music.

Question 17

Minor chords

Answer 17

The natural minor contains half steps between the scale degrees 2 and 3 and between 5 and 6. The notes of the natural minor scale, in essence, begin on the sixth degree so that the C minor scale is played as the E b major scale but starting on C.
The harmonic minor contains half steps between scale degrees 2 and 3, 5 and 6, and 7 and 8. The augmented second, or whole step plus half step, occurring between the 6 and 7 degrees gives this minor its characteristic sound.
The melodic minor contains is either ascending or descending with no augmented second between 6 and 7. The ascending melodic minor is a natural minor with augmented 6 and 7 with half steps between 2 and 3 and between 7 and 8. The descending melodic minor refers to the natural minor scale.

Question 18

Scales

Answer 18

A musical scale is the sequenced arrangement of notes or pitches that are located within the octave. Both major and minor scales have 7 different notes or scale degrees, and each scale degree is indicated by the Arabic number showing the position of the note as it appears in the scale. Each major scale has 2 similar units of 4 notes, or tetrachords, that are separated by a whole step where each tetrachord has 2 whole steps and 1 half step.
Minor scales are classified as natural, harmonic, and melodic and all start with the same minor tetrachord of 1-2- b3-4 with variations occurring on degrees 6 and 7 in the upper tetrachord.
The major and minor scales can be referred to as relative or parallel. Relative scales share the same key signature though they start on different notes, such as the C major and A minor. Parallel scales start on the same note but have different key signatures, such as C major and C minor. The tonal center refers to the parent scale and the series of diatonic, or scale-based, seventh chords that are the result of harmonizing the parent scale. The chord progressions are designated with Roman numerals and can show the chord functions regardless of the key signature since the system shows how each chord belongs to a key. Minor chords are shown by lower-case numerals, and major and dominant chords are shown by upper-case numerals. The Cmaj7 would be shown as 1 (scale degree) with Imaj7 (Roman numeral); the Dm7 would be shown as 2 with iim7, and on.

Question 19

Modes

Answer 19

Similar to chords, a scale can be inverted so that the same range of notes is used but with a different starting pitch. This inversion is referred to as a mode, which contains the same 7 notes of the parent scale but uses a different tonal center for the other notes to base. These 7 notes equal the major scale but with a different starting note. The starting note is emphasized as the tonal center by the modal melodies and chord progressions.
A modal melody is written with the same key signature of the parent scale or with a major or minor key center that includes accidentals to create the sounds of the mode.

Question 20

The 7 modes

Answer 20

Chord I, or first chord, is the major chord and is referred to as Ionian. Chord ii, or second chord, is minor and is referred to as Dorian. Chord iii, or third chord, is minor and is referred to as Phyrgian. Chord IV, or fourth chord, is major and is referred to as Lydian. Chord V, or fifth chord, is dominant and is referred to as Mixolydian. Chord vi, or sixth chord, is minor and is referred to as Aeolian. The Aeolian chord is the natural minor. Chord vii, or seventh chord, is minor diminished fifth and is referred to as Locrian. The modal system is based on the Greek study of sounds.

Question 21

Modal characteristics

Answer 21

Each of the 7 modes contains a defining scale step that separates it from the Aeolian mode, or natural minor scale, and the Ionian mode, or major scale. The 5 tonal modes are the Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, and Aeolian. These 5 all contain the same 1, 4, and 5 scale degrees as these scale degrees are constants. The kind of dissonance deemed necessary for a certain sound in the music will determine the kind of mode selected. The Locrian is the darkest, followed by Phyrgian and Aeolian. The Dorian mode is the mid-point for the dissonance chart. The brightest mode is the Lydian, followed by the Ionian and Mixolydian.

Question 22

Diatonic harmony

Answer 22

The tonalities for minor scales are more complex than those for major scales since the minor scale can cull from 4 different parent scales as a source of melodic and harmonic progression. The major or Ionian scale uses one parent scale. The 4 possible parent scales for minor tonalities are the natural minor or Aeolian, Dorian, harmonic minor, and melodic minor. While the Aeolian is considered to be the pure minor, the Dorian and melodic minor are used the most for static minor chords, and the natural harmonic minor are most often used over minor-key chord progressions. In response to the natural minor, the harmonic minor will raise the 7, and the melodic minor will raise the 6 and 7.

Question 23

Pentatonic scales

Answer 23

Similar in origin to the modes, pentatonic scales are constructed from the Greek penta- for five and consist of 5 specific notes. Though any five notes could loosely be referred to as a pentatonic scale, there are accepted versions or scales. The pentatonic scale, a musical line with no half steps, is used in different styles of folk music as it occurs worldwide. Pentatonic scales have been featured in works by Ravel and Debussy as well as in other Western music. The types of pentatonic scales are major and minor. A C major pentatonic scale is spelled C D E G A and includes scale degrees 1 2 3 5 6. The corresponding C minor pentatonic scale is spelled C E b F G B b and includes scale degrees 1 b3 4 5 b7.

Question 24

Altered scale

Answer 24

The altered scale is the seventh mode of the melodic minor scale as this particular minor has several altered tones, such as the b9, #9, #11, and b11, and could be described as a major scale with the root raised a half step. The altered scale would appear like 1 b2 b3 b4 (=M3) b5 (= #4) b6 b7. As seen in the C melodic minor, the chord built on the seventh degree, or B, is half-diminished and could be considered an altered dominant seventh chord. The deciding factor would be whatever note is considered to be the third of the chord as D (b3) or E (M3 or b4) where D as the third would result in Bm7 b5 and E b (=D#) as the third would result in B7 b5.

Question 25

Altered dominant chords

Answer 25

While an altered chord could generally describe any basic change to chordal structure, jazz and other musical styles define an altered chord to be a dominant chord that is derived from the altered scale. The resultant altered scale is referred to as the Super-Lochrian scale, the Pomeroy scale, and the diminished whole-tone scale but is fundamentally viewed as the seventh mode of the melodic minor. When the term “alt” is used in conjunction with chords, it usually suggests that the altered fifth and altered ninth are both combined in the chord. The B7alt chord includes all of the following altered notes: 1, #11, b7, b9, 3, b13, 1, and #9.

Question 26

Chord families

Answer 26

In the 7 major keys, all of the diatonic chords can be grouped into 3 segments or families relating to the harmonic function of each and the shared connection with certain notes that can suggest certain emotional effects. The 3 families are the Tonic, Subdominant, and Dominant. The Tonic is comprised of I, iii, and vi; the Subdominant is comprised of ii and IV, and the Dominant is comprised of V and vii.
The VI chord in minor keys is often considered part of the subdominant family. The resultant grouping for minor is as follows: Tonic includes i and III; Subdominant includes ii, iv, and VI; and Dominant includes v (or V) and VII.

Question 27

VI chord and resolution

Answer 27

The VI chord can be interpreted as either tonic or subdominant in both major and minor scales as the interpretation of the chord relates to the development of the progression. This can occur because the VI chord shares 2 notes with the tonic and subdominant families. In the V7, the vim7 usually sounds like it belongs to the tonic family. However, in the vim7-V7-Imaj7, the VI chord appears to be part of the subdominant family.
The movement occurring between the 3 families of chords defines the beginnings of Western music. The harmonic sequence starts in the tonic and moves away from the stability toward a subdominant chord and into the tension of the dominant chord. From there, movement is made toward a resolution in the tonic and is best exemplified by I-IV- V-I.

Question 28

Cadence

Answer 28

A cadence refers to the movement from one family, or function, of chords to another family and is used to establish the key centers. Key centers define the song structure and emphasize the ending points of each song section. Also described as the final cadence, full cadence, and full close, the authentic cadence refers to the movement from the dominant family to the tonic, or V to I, and is believed to be the most important chord movement in Western harmonic study. The plagal cadence, or IV to I, can also be very powerful, and the deceptive cadence refers to the V chord resolving to any other chord but the tonic.

Question 29

ii-V-I cadence

Answer 29

With a certain degree of refinement, the ii-V-I cadence starts on a subdominant in lieu of the tonic, which can make the initial key features more ambiguous. The motion of the root is still up by a perfect fourth or down by a perfect fifth, as are evidenced in jazz, Classical, and Romantic musical styles. The cadence itself provides a certain texture to the contours of the piece since the ii-V-I cadence allows the melodic lines to be formed by the harmony notes created when the chords themselves change. As an important part of jazz composition and improvisation, the ii-V-I cadence should be verified immediately when reviewing the chord progressions of a piece so that the performer can anticipate the necessary changes as they relate to the tonal structure.

Question 30

Circle of fifths and fourths

Answer 30

Moving up in fourths or fifths like in the ii-V-I allows the performer to trace a pattern along the circle of fourths or fifths whereby the tracing of the progression will ultimately end back at the beginning of the exercise. This circle, or cycle, of fourths or fifths gives an example of how to visualize all major or minor keys. The circle provides assistance in the understanding of chordal motion, such as cadences, as well as providing an outline for musical practice on exercises in all keys. The circle of fifths is sequenced as C G D A E B F#, while the circle of fourths is sequenced as C F B b E b A b D b G b. The circle of fourths is just the circle of fifths in reverse.

Question 31

Ii-V sequences

Answer 31

When the ii-V-I cadence is left incomplete, the sequence heard is usually the ii-V chain. This particular sequence can be effective as an unresolved chordal progression. The repetition of the same chord in succession or throughout the work, or ostinato, can give a piece harmonic continuity while providing an established modality. The repeated pattern or piano montuno can provide different types of harmonic rhythm. The ii-V sequence or chain usually occurs as transitions, or modulations from one key to another, with an upward or downward root motion and ascends or descends through keys that are equal distances apart from each other. Typical modulations include up or down by M2, chromatically up or down by m2, up or down by M3, and up or down by m3. These chains without resolution give anticipation to the piece so that the final reach of the tonic provides full closure.

Question 32

Turnarounds

Answer 32

Another way to add tension in musical progression is through the use of the turnaround. A turnaround is a series of chords that occur at the end of a section and, at its most basic construction, contains 4 seventh chords such as I-VI-ii- V. This progression can also be referred to as the “I Got Rhythm” progression or just as rhythm changes. The chords function to carry the music back to the first bar, which leads to the first chord of that passage. The turnaround gives the harmony a chance to build tension from the end of one chorus to the start of another chorus. Two basic turnarounds in C major can be written as C maj7 Am7│Dm7G7 and Em7 Am7│Dm7G7.

Question 33

Harmonic analysis

Answer 33

Study of music through harmonic analysis provides an understanding of the harmonic and melodic structure of a work. Chord progressions can be composed to sound logical and smooth if the composer has studied and is knowledgeable about the harmonic principles that determine chord motion. This familiarity with musical composition enables composers as well as improvising performers to reharmonize existing melodies to provide for increases in tension and an individual interpretation of a piece. This reharmonization, or chord substitution, is widely used in jazz and can be employed to keep the performer’s personality in the chordal progression. Roman numerals are used to show how different chords function in the key centers, and other markings are employed to direct the musician.

Question 34

Analytical markings

Answer 34

When a dominant seventh chord or altered dominant chord will be moving downward by a perfect fifth to any chord, an arrow on an arc is drawn to encompass this progression. The arrow itself shows the functioning dominant chord as it moves toward its expected resolution by moving down a fifth. When no arrow is used, then the seventh chord is not moving to its resolution and is instead moving toward a non-functioning dominant. The arrow is dotted if the dominant seventh or altered dominant chord is moving down by a minor second to any chord. Brackets are drawn underneath the progression if the m7 or m7 b5 moves up by a perfect fourth to a dominant seventh.A complete II-V-I can be written with a bracket for the first progression and a full arrow for the second.

Question 35

Structural divisions

Answer 35

A 32-bar structure is usually subdivided into 4 sets of 8-bar sections. The sections can be played or interpreted independently of each other and are usually either parallel in structure to each other or contrast each other greatly. This format can be used with melody and any chord progressions in the harmony. The common structures of AABA and ABAC refer to the construction of each 8-bar section and how it relates to the whole structure. The markings used between the sections can alert the performers as to how to interpret the musical sections in their relationship to each other. The marking can be as important in the piece as the notes themselves.

Question 36

Dominant functions

Answer 36

Dominant functions can cross structural divisions; the descending fifth still occurs to resolve the chord. Structural divisions do, however, upset the ii-V7 motion since the motion cannot maintain its characteristics as it crosses the structural division. The Am7, for example, would sound like an extension of the Fmaj7 since it acts as the diatonic chord with the tonic function. In this case, the subsequent D7 would not be bracketed to the Am7 chord in the chordal progression Fmaj7 Am7 D7 Gm7. A full arrow would connect the D7 to the Gm7 in its interpretation.
The minor seventh chord should occur on the strong beat of the harmonic motion to qualify as a ii-V7 progression. The ii chords would usually occur on odd- numbered measures while the V7s would occur on even-numbered measures. Any minor seventh chords on the second half of the measure are usually not part of the ii-V7 sequence.

Question 37

Secondary dominant chords

Answer 37

A secondary dominant chord refers to the dominant chord that will resolve to a diatonic chord which is not the tonic. The dominant chord will resolve to the tonic, or V7, and is usually referred to as the primary dominant chord. Any one key has one primary dominant chord, which is the chord based on the fifth scale degree of only diatonic notes. When dominant chords are based on other scale degrees, they contain nondiatonic chord tones such as a raised third to change the minor seventh chord (ii, iii, or vi) to a dominant, the lowered seventh to change the major seventh chord (I or IV) to a dominant, or the raised third and fifth to change the m7 b5 (vii) to a dominant. The secondary dominants usually resolve to the diatonic a perfect fifth below.

Question 38

Tonicized chords

Answer 38

The extra dominant chord can create a temporary sense that the diatonic chord being resolved is the tonic in a changing key. This resulting chord is tonicized. While this effect is temporary, the overall key does not change. Since the diatonic chord viimi7 b5 cannot function as a tonic even for the short-term, its secondary dominant V7/vii is not used in any of the major keys. Secondary dominant chords can still refer to chords that are non- functioning, or resolving to an unexpected chord, though not every dominant chord occurring in a key other than V is classified as secondary dominant. Secondary dominants can occur in minor keys, and the V chord is still considered the dominant in addition to the possible VII chord. The V7/ii is not used in a minor mode since ii is a m7 b5 and cannot be tonicized.

Question 39

Diminished chords as dominants

Answer 39

The diminished seventh chord can occur naturally on the seventh step of the harmonic minor sequence and, as such, can also function as a secondary dominant chord. Diminished seventh chords can also work as 7 b9 chords that are rootless. For the diminished seventh chord to be classified as a functioning secondary dominant, it must precede an intended target or harmonic progression, such as a diatonic chord that is a half step higher than any of its tones. Any tone that occurs in a dim7 chord can be considered the root of the chord. Since diminished seventh chords can resolve in different ways, they are best employed as the pivot chords in any changing of theme or modulation.

Question 40

Backcycling dominants

Answer 40

Two or more dominant chords following the circle of fifths can reach the target chord, usually I, and the resolution of the sequence of secondary dominants can be delayed for a few bars. Backcycling or sequential dominants, or chords with added notes for tension, may start in the D7 (V7/V/V/V) and continue to G7 (V7/V/V) before the secondary dominant occurs at C7 (V7/V). The dominant occurs at F7 (V7) before the chordal progression resolves at B bmaj7 or Imaj7 in a rhythm change bridge in B b. These cycles of dominant seventh chords are not well represented with Roman numerals; therefore, any backcycling dominant functions are usually enclosed in parentheses.

Question 41

Contiguous dominants

Answer 41

A series of non-functional dominant chords or ii-Vs, contiguous dominants usually occur in a pattern defined by moving upward by half step, whole step, minor third, or major third; or moving downward by minor third or major third. The first V7 will not resolve to its following chord in a pattern of ii-Vs, even though the following chord is related to the next dominant chord. The deceptive cadence results from the V7 not resolving to a perfect fifth or down a half step as anticipated. The contiguous dominants outline the possible modulations in a series to imply or suggest changing to a new key without actually doing so, or tonicization. The technique itself dates back to music composed by Schumann, Chopin, and Brahms in the Romantic Period as the modulations became shorter and more frequent. The dominant chord even when preceded by the subdominant chord perfectly established the tonicization.

Question 42

Modulation types

Answer 42

As changes in the key, modulations can be subtle or abrupt, suggesting a new tonal center or establishing a different key. Modulations are categorized into four types: direct, prepared, pivot chord, and transitional. Direct modulation, also called unprepared or abrupt, changes the key between chords with no indication of an eminent change. Prepared modulation uses the V7 to set up for the key change since the diminished seventh chord resolves to the key one half step up. Pivot chord modulation uses a diatonic common chord for both keys so that the work can pivot between the two areas. Transitional modulation occurs when the music ends at a different key than it starts, moving through cyclic chromatic ii- V progressions.

Question 43

Modal interchange

Answer 43

Also known as borrowed harmonies, mode mixture, or mixture, modal interchange refers to the use of an existing chord from a parallel, or of the same root, mode or scale where the particular chord is applied from the parallel key to the original key to replace the expected functions. Chords of the natural and harmonic minor are often used in the parallel major scale. The borrowed chords have different tones from the original key signature that are present in the parallel mode. The major scale can be expanded when borrowing chords form the parallel minor since the minor has 3 variant notes. Modal interchange can be used to add texture and simplify changes to closely related keys for the original parallel minor or major.

Question 44

Dynamics in music

Answer 44

Dynamics refers to the degree of loudness or softness of a musical piece. Certain terms can indicate this degree, as well as specific abbreviations and symbols used within the music and at specific places. Dynamic marks can also indicate a change in volume or sound quality and usually suggest the character of the piece to be observed during its performance. Usually written in Italian, dynamic marks are often abbreviated and range from very soft pianissimo (pp) to mezzo piano (mp) to mezzo forte (mf) to fortissimo (ff) which is very loud.
Gradual changes in volume can be represented by a < or the word crescendo for increasing in volume and by a > or the words diminuendo or decrescendo for decreasing in volume. These marks for the changing of volume can be several measures long or just a the span of a few notes.

Question 45

Tempo

Answer 45

The tempo or speed of the piece of music can be designated by specific tempo marks as well as certain Italian words that describe the speed and also the character of the piece. The words used include grave for very slow and serious, largo for broad, lento for slow, adagio for slow and with ease, andante for steadily moving, moderato for moderate, allegretto for fast, allegro for fast and cheerful, vivace for lively, presto for very fast, and prestissimo for as fast as possible. Other relative changes in tempo can be described with the words ritardando, or rit., for slowing, as well as accelerando for quickening and più mosso for faster. The tempo marking are a guide for the performance and can be interpreted differently by different conductors.

Question 46

Performance marks

Answer 46

The composer may also feel that the best performance will also include certain stylistic choices or other technical direction. Verbal instructions can be used, such as con sordino or play with a mute, tutti or full ensemble, and arco or play with the bow. Other symbols can be used to show phrasing or articulation, such as slurs, dots, wedges, accents, lines, strokes over notes, and sfortzando or sfz. Tempo designation symbols may be interpreted differently in the different music periods or styles. The composer may include fingerings for the stringed or keyboard instruments, bowings for the stringed instruments, and pedaling patterns for the piano. Other words may be used to define the character of the piece, such as dolce for sweet, cantabile for singing, con spirito for spirited, sostenuto for sustained, and marcato for emphasized or marked.

Question 47

Musical notation

Answer 47

Most musical notation provides some direction for the interpretation of pitch, duration, timbre, and volume or loudness. The direction for duration may also emphasize the rhythm and other parts of articulation, while the direction for loudness may include suggestions for change. Most notation refers to the pitch and duration where the pitch is listed on the vertical axis of a graph and the duration is listed on the horizontal axis. The degrees of pitch are shown amid the lines of the staff while the length of time necessary for each measure is shown from left to right by the measure lines. Two or more staves show the appropriate range of pitches for a piece and the corresponding voices or instruments. A clef at the beginning of the staff indicates the location of a particular pitch and the other pitches in relation to that tone.

Question 48

Written music

Answer 48

The clef shows the location of a pitch, and the lines and spaces of the staff combine with the clef to show the diatonic scale. Ledger lines provide the pitches that are located either just above or just below the particular staff. The scale is laid out in the white keys of the piano so that the 7 letters of the alphabet repeat from octave to octave. The pitches that follow the black keys of the piano are named based on their relationship to the surrounding white keys and the type of scale with its corresponding accidentals. The lines of the staff specify the name of the note, such as A or D, and any pitch would be shown on the staff with a # or b placed by the note on the particular line.

Question 49

Timbre

Answer 49

The direction for timbre, or tone color, is usually based on the specific instrumentation or vocalization of the ensemble. While some instruments have a limited range of timbres, other instruments appear to have a less traditional approach to sound by being amenable to many different formats or stylistic choices. The Twentieth Century composers exploited this multiple-timbre option and insisted on bringing more instruments to a higher degree of performance. The harpsichord and organ can produce great variety through their registration, or choice and selection of stops used in a performance, while stringed instruments can be modified with different techniques of bowing or muting. Brass instruments incorporate the use of mutes frequently to alter the timbre, and percussion instruments often use different types of mallets or hammers for any modification.

Question 50

Rhythm

Answer 50

As the pattern of movement in a particular time, rhythm has referred to both the flow of a piece and the ability of the piece to maintain or uphold the pulse. Rhythm can be generally assigned to cover any aspect of music that is not related to pitch, though it has also been used as another factor for consideration with melody and harmony. As an equal partner to meter and tempo, rhythm can describe a pattern of stresses and retreats that are defined by a particular tempo or meter and are composed of hazy pitches or subtle harmonies as well as percussive bursts. For rhythm to sustain, the stresses and retreats should be frequent enough to maintain the melodic or harmonic thought and have defined articulation.

Question 51

Classifications of rhythm

Answer 51

As rhythm can refer to many different focuses in musical analysis, rhythm can be described in many different ways as it relates to pitch and the texture of the work. Different analyses can focus on the durational rhythm, accentual rhythm, timbral rhythm, textural rhythm, melodic rhythm, and harmonic rhythm as each relates to the discussion. The four dimensions of rhythm should be determined independently of each other. The musical work should have definite duration, pulse, rhythm, and meter, all of which could be present in any combination. Accentual rhythm is the most prominent in Western music, and the even spacing of pulses arranged in regularly occurring stress patterns can be regarded as basic rhythmic material.

Question 52

Rhythmic stresses

Answer 52

Western music shows the recurrent accent on the first beat of the phrase by being louder than succeeding beats, softer than succeeding beats, or fuller than succeeding beats. The cadence in a traditional sequence of intervallic harmonies strongly shows how metric accent can be defined by the texture and progression of pitches or chords. This progresses from the consonant preparation to the dissonant suspension before moving to a consonant resolution. When the harmonic interval of the consonant resolution can transcend to a perfect consonance, the cadential closure is possible. This succession as defined by preparation, suspension, resolution, and cadence can be simplified to weak-strong- weak accents. The change of harmony provides the unaccented pulse of harmonic rhythm. The tonic harmony moves toward a strong accented harmony of a predominant class before going to a weak accented harmony and ends with the strong accented tonic or tonic substitute.

Question 53

Appoggiatura

Answer 53

An appoggiatura is a pitch that is usually dissonant and occurring in a strong position within the meter. Eventually, the appoggiatura resolves by moving upward or downward one step to complete the consonance, which occurs in a weaker position within the meter. The appoggiatura replaces the main note at the onset of the attack before resolving to the pitch of the main note. As ornamentation, the note should be accented prior to the resolution; however, the appoggiatura is often unaccented and exists to anticipate the accented portion of the beat. When writing an appoggiatura, the composer may elect to write the note or hook smaller and often like a grace note, which may lessen the importance of the appoggiatura. The other issue involved in interpretation of this device is the duration required for the appoggiatura.

Question 54

Purpose of appoggiatura (1 of 2)

Answer 54

In previous writing styles, the appoggiatura would be slurred to the correct pitch for the resolution. While given an approximate length or duration, the appoggiatura was not to be counted in the metrical line. Occasionally the writing for the appoggiatura is left out as it is understood that the performer will embellish the part. Music theorists argue that the performer should interpret the appoggiatura in the music dynamically or artistically, which would allow the composer less regimented writing for this ornamentation. Usually resolving on trills for descending appoggiaturas or mordents for ascending appoggiaturas, the appoggiatura often becomes an important part of the particular ornamentation or flourish requested by the composer and, thus, is spelled out in the music.

Question 55

Purpose of appoggiatura (2 of 2)

Answer 55

Usually played as a chord, the arpeggio would sound out the 1, 3, and 5 degrees of the scale and would be played in ascending or descending order. Occasionally, the arpeggio would be played initially as a full chord and then the notes spelled out individually from lowest to highest pitch. Full arpeggio chords shown to have wavy lines running alongside for both staves would indicate that the performer would play each note individually in succession as the arpeggio and not as one full chord. This shorthand allows composers to condense the writing, especially as the arpeggio would be played within a particular time but without taking up a lot of room. Diagonal strokes on the shaft of the note also indicate the arpeggio to be played from extreme to extreme, and the curved line between two notes combined with the diagonal stroke is another kind of shorthand for composers.

Question 56

Ornamentation

Answer 56

Through modification of music, ornamentation usually occurs through an addition of notes to create more beauty or greater effect or to showcase the dexterity and abilities of the individual performer. Ornamentation can be added through graces, variations of rhythm or sound, and elaborate pauses. Graces can refer to any additional notes written in typical musical figures, any shifts or amendments to the note-values in the music, and any changes as the result of dynamic, color, or pitch shifts. Examples of graces include appoggiatura, grace note, and mordent, while examples of variations can be arpeggio, rubato, and suspension. The elaborate pauses are called balancement, Messa di Voce, and vibrato. Accents, aspiration, Plainte, Quiebro, and Tour de gosier are other forms of ornamentation.

Question 57

Tremolo

Answer 57

The tremolo refers to a repeating pitch or pattern that is quick and continuous. A rapid up-and-down movement with the bow on stringed instruments can be written with a horizontal wavy line or by drawing a long arc over the repeated notes of low metrical value. The shaft of the note can also be diagonally slashed three times to indicate the tremolo. Stringed instruments can also feature the tremolo through slightly articulated notes played in succession without changing the direction of the bow and can occur between 2 pitches that are shown to be connected with the wavy lines or long arc. Individual notes written out with fingerings listed below the notes on the staff would indicate that these notes are to be fingered instead of bowed for the tremolo.

Question 58

Trill

Answer 58

The trill is an ornamentation completed by rapidly moving between two pitches that are sequential within the key of the particular piece. The trill can be shown in the music by the abbreviation tr above the note to be trilled, and performers can often determine if the notes to be trilled should start with the note as it is written, a step just above or below the written note, or a beat just before or after the time shown. Vocal trills are more common for pieces that would benefit from vibrato while organ or keyboard trills usually would hold the main note and the upper tone would be reiterated. Trills were also expected to be interjected by the performer and not necessarily to be written out by the composer.

Question 59

Trill speed

Answer 59

A trill will usually be written above intervals that are narrower than a minor second for more pronounced vibrato or wider than a major second for articulated wind- or stringed-instrument fingerings. The auxiliary of the trill follows the same rules that relate to other accidentals in the key. Most composers and audience members of all musical periods felt that the longer trill was always better for the ornamentation of the music. The speed of the trill added to the ornamental effect so that trills on a semi-tone were slow or accelerating while trills on a whole tone were moderate. Writers may specify the speed of the trill within the piece or may leave that up to the performer, but the main emphasis on the trill should be the main note at the end.

Question 60

Tremolo and trill starting note

Answer 60

Many theorists argue about the starting note for the tremolo and trill as to whether or not the main note or the note above or below the main note should be the initial tone when playing the ornament. Some performers felt that the tremolo could begin on the main note while trills could begin on the auxiliary possibly after an emphasis or long hold on the main note. Upper-note on-beat starts have been fashionable in some periods and areas, and some composers and performers have preferred the auxiliary played as a measured note before the trilling that would begin with the main note first. The initial trilling note, whether main or auxiliary, would usually be off-beat and not counted in the meter.

Question 61

Trill or tremolo ending

Answer 61

As the trill or tremolo is an ornamentation, it is not the focus of the piece and usually carries little importance to the overall work. Regarding this, the performer must be cognizant of how to end the trill or tremolo. Sometimes the music will show that the ornament is suddenly stopped or snapped off at the main note. If the ornament is for a shorter duration, the sound could be held to the early part of the beat; if the ornament is for a greater duration, the sound could be held out a little longer. For shorter notes, the trilling can be combined to transition to the next phrase. A suffix, or descent to the lower auxiliary before the main note, may also be used and may be separated from the remainder of the music by a small rest.

Question 62

Note and rest

Answer 62

The meter of the piece of music determines how the musical notes and rests are to be played and interpreted in relation to each other. The note is the symbol used to indicate the duration of sound at a given pitch, while the rest follows the same duration distinction but requires no sound for its effect on the piece by the particular instrument. Note and rest types are named according to their metric value and are referred to as full, half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth, third- second, and sixty-fourth. While some notes, such as grace notes or trills, carry a small metric valuation, they are usually not figured in the overall metric value of the measure.

Question 63

Psychology

Answer 63

Researchers study how people respond psychologically to music through perception and production in such fields as psychophysics, cognitive psychology, and neuropsychology. Psychophysics, or psychoacoustics, analyzes the sensory structures that respond to the pitch, volume, and timbre of the music or sounds. Cognitive psychology studies the characterization of bits of information and processes in the perceptual organization and memory. Neuropsychology studies any neurophysiological basis for the performance and perception of music as observed through clinical study of people with damage to the brain cortex. The pitch, when perceived, is encoded through the position of the basilar membrane in the cochlea and the more advanced neural analysis of patterns in the acoustic format. Both studies of the perception of pitch are called Place Theory and Volley Theory respectively.

Question 64

Frequency and pitch change

Answer 64

The basilar membrane vibrates in response to each frequency in a position that is related to the type of frequency. The smallest frequency difference between any tones produced at the same time, or the limit of discrimination, defines when the ear barely perceives 2 distinct pitches. Below this, any pitch occurring between the 2 is combined with the sound of the 2 pitches or pulses. When a tone changes pitch, the ear can differentiate the differences in frequency. The frequency range and tonal duration also determine the resolution of sound. The roughness caused by 2 disagreeing sounds created at the same time or the canceling out of a sound by another is called critical band. The more advanced neurons will change over time in the firing rate and detect certain patterns in dissonances and poorly configured consonances.

Question 65

Contour

Answer 65

A pattern of frequency that is either increasing or decreasing, contour is psychologically important in the study of music since the ear identifies tones that are quickly sequenced with directional contours more accurately than tones that have more complex contours. Exact duplication of intervals is more important for psychological familiarity in common melodies than exact transpositions or transpositions that maintain the same contour. The ear is not as amenable to recognizing melodies that have been inverted or regressed, and the contour of the phrasing allows the ear to make that connection since the ear can perceive a pitch occurring in a fundamental even when that pitch is not being played. Long- term memory for specific pitches and phrasing is limited in most people while the short-term memory focuses more on the frequency of the specific pitch and other pitches occurring in relation.

Question 66

Absolute pitch

Answer 66

Absolute pitch describes the person who can identify a pitch or produce a designated pitch without regard to any reference point or standard. Absolute pitch differs from perfect pitch as there are many different facets of skill or ability involved in absolute pitch that are not pertinent in perfect pitch. While musicians with absolute pitch are fewer than those with relative pitch, they are able to teach others how to identify tones accurately through training so that absolute pitch may be a learned trait. Some researchers feel that absolute pitch occurs in people with an internal base pitch grounded in long-term memory, while other researchers believe that the ability is innate. Absolute pitch is more easily developed or acquired in childhood, and research is still ongoing.

Question 67

Music sequencing

Answer 67

Random musical sequences are not as easily remembered as tonal melodic and harmonic sequences, and nondiatonic components in sequences are often confused with the diatonic components. Tonal functions with an established foundation define the relationship between tones and chords, and the ear is more adverse to processing modulations and transpositions to distant keys than to related keys. Music sequencing is similar to linguistic structuring as it relates to the audience member: patterns of melody, harmony, and rhythm work together better with appropriately defined tone, key, and chord structures. Infants are able to approximate a tone and distinguish between transposed phrasings, and young children can reproduce short or limited contours with some discrepancy in pitch. Early childhood musical education provides opportunities for children to learn to produce pitches accurately and distinguish between scale and key structure.