Music EC-12 (Listening) Flashcards

1
Q

Audiation

A

Gordon’s music learning theory for newborn and young children offers the idea that audiation, or the cognitive steps taken in the brain when music is heard or remembered not as the result of outside stimuli, is imperative for a child to understand music and subsequently to perform or compose music. Aural perception differs from audiation in that aural perception occurs when a person hears the music that is being played. Musicians are special in that they can audiate with no outside reference points, which allows them to read, remember, write, improvise, and compose music. Children can develop rhythmic and tonal audiation which will allow them a better understanding of how to read music. Preparatory audiation involves acculturation, imitation, and assimilation.

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2
Q

Acculturation of preparatory audiation

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As the first type of preparatory audiation, acculturation as the readiness period involves absorption, random response, and purposeful response where children learn from the sounds and music heard around them. Absorption lasts for the first 18months of a child’s life and includes listening. The second stage, random response occurs between 1 and 3 years where the child can participate in music through listening as well as creating and dancing. Purposeful response occurs between 18 months and 3 years so that the child can attempt to contribute to the music by copying movements or singing along. During this time, parents and teachers should play different styles of music and try to encourage any babbling or moving done by the child in response to the music. Children should be persuaded to create their own songs and should be introduced to the tonal and rhythmic patterns in music.

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3
Q

Imitation of preparatory audiation

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The second type of preparatory audiation, imitation occurs between 3 and 5 and involves the child shedding his or her egocentricity and breaking the code. Many different aspects of the environment and personality of the child will determine how quickly and easily a child moves from one step to the next in the preparatory audiation stages. As a child enters the shedding of egocentricity stage, he or she becomes cognizant of how his or her movements or sounds may differ from other children’s or adults’ movements or sounds. The time required for the child to reach this level of awareness is important as young musicians must be able to differentiate between correct and incorrect imitation. The breaking the code stage involves a child realizing he or she can imitate the rhythmic or tonal patterns heard. Patience is the best way to proceed with children who are entering this stage.

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4
Q

Assimilation of preparatory audiation

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The third type of preparatory audiation, assimilation involves the 2 stages of introspection and coordination. Between 3 and 6, a child may develop the ability to coordinate the movements involved in moving while singing. During the introspection stage, the child should discover with no assistance from the parent or teacher how the body movements coordinate with the rhythmic pulse of the chanting or singing. Once this awareness takes place, the child can then progress to the final stage of coordination. The coordination stage involves the child actively participating in timing the movements with the musical or rhythmic pattern of the song or chant. As this stage occurs around school time, the music educator at the school should be able to help students with any aspect of this process.

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5
Q

Acoustics

A

Acoustics refers to the study of the production and perception of sound within a particular room or area. By producing musical sound, musicians create mechanical vibrations from the stretching of strings or membranes, movement of wooden parts, and the oscillatory movement of air columns. This sound action affects the air, which carries the energy of the vibrations from the musician to the audience member. The sound is transmitted through to the brain where it is deciphered and interpreted. The perceived sound is referred to as a pure tone and has a frequency of full oscillations occurring each second. The human ear can perceive 20 to 20,000 cycles per second, or cps, and the corresponding frequency of the pure tone determines the pitch.

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6
Q

Frequency

A

Higher frequencies produced indicate higher pitches perceived. The concert A pitch corresponds to 440 cps, which is the frequency created by the vibrations on a tuning fork that moves back and forth 440 times a second. When that frequency is doubled, the pitch is raised an octave. The maximum pressure of the vibration or air displacement corresponds to the amount of energy in the vibrating action and the amount of energy that is available to be transmitted through the air. The energy that reacts with the air at that point reflects the current sound intensity. As the intensity increases, the sound is magnified; however, the intensity of sound can reflect more than the frequency and pitch.

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7
Q

Complex sounds and pitch

A

Any complex pattern or tone can be displayed as a total number of pure tones at different frequencies and different amplitudes, or strengths. These components that create the complex sounds are called partials and have corresponding partial frequencies. A decaying or continuously sounding musical tone shows the changes in frequencies and amplitudes and has partial frequencies that equal an integer times the single frequency. This mathematical equation is called the fundamental. Partial fundaments can be 440, 880, 1320, and on and register as 1f, 2f, 3f and on where f 1(frequency) is 440 cps; the frequency of the nth partial corresponds to n times the frequency of the fundamental. A harmonic set of partial frequencies characterizes the musical tones continuously produced.

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8
Q

Pitch and musical tone

A

Well-defined musical tones have a pitch relating to the frequency of the fundamental as established by the harmonic make-up of the tones. While the frequencies creating the concert A pitch may be 440, 880, or 1320 cps, the tone is still a concert A and is perceived individually, not as a chord. The association with the pitch of a particular tone is strong enough that the tone is heard in the harmonic set of partials even when the fundamental is removed from the tone. The harmonically related partials of intermediate percussion instruments, such as marimba or tympani, establish a definite pitch while the additional partials that are not related harmonically work together to produce the tonal quality of the instrument. Other instruments, like the bell, will create partial frequencies that do not contain harmonic sets or will create harmonics with rich partial frequencies and no definite pitch, like the cymbal.

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9
Q

Sound

A

Under the direction of the musician, a vibration is created within the instrument. As the modes of motion initiate the corresponding sound work, the frequencies create harmonic sets. For example, the string will vibrate in loops or segments of equal length for modes besides the first mode. The points between the loops are called nodes. Any excitation of the instrument will set the modes of the instrument into great vibrations so that the partial frequencies of the produced tone will be the regular frequencies created by the vibrating motion. With stringed instruments, any increased tension on the strings will raise the pitch. With wind instruments, the pressure change between the ends of the instrument determines the pitch. With percussion instruments, the density of the instrument and the corresponding mallet or beater determine the pitch. The vibrations occurring within the instrument are transferred out where they are perceived by the audience.

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10
Q

Sound envelope

A

More than timbre or tonal quality, the number of frequencies and amplitudes of the partials is an important consideration of the sound. The number of partials that make up the tone is an important facet of the timbre. The basic sound associated with certain instruments results from the related intensities of the partials. The ear and brain perceive the specific frequencies and amplitudes to identify the sound of the instrument, and the association with the start and end of the particular phrasing also defines an instrument and its characteristic sound. As a tone begins and completes a steady creation of sound, it forms the attack; as a tone dies away or ends, it forms the decay. The sounds of the attack and decay together create the sound envelope.

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11
Q

Architectural acoustics

A

The reflection of sound and speed of transmission are two important considerations regarding the determination of good sound. Sound created inside the music hall should reach the audience directly but also should bounce off the walls and ceiling to even out the effect. Some sounds travel faster than others and are more piercing when they reach the audience, after being bounced around the room and other objects within that room. If the sound takes too long to reach the audience, it may be perceived as an echo that is distracting. Sound perceived in a live room has obvious reflected qualities with a richer fullness while a dead room will absorb the sound without allowing for any reflection or bouncing back of sound waves. The walls, carpeting, drapes, and ceiling tiles can also contribute to the quality of the room and how well the sound waves will be reflected.

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12
Q

Perceptive listening

A

As art of sound, music is best appreciated by listeners who are attentive, and music educators can help students learn how to listen. Perceptive listening allows students not only to hear the notes but also to understand the structure and movement of the phrasing. This kind of listener can fathom how the elements of the piece go together and are sustained. Research has shown that even young children will cease all movement to listen or concentrate on a singer or some other instrument actively engaged in the production of music. Similar to learning a second language, the process of perceptive listening requires a period of just hearing the components of the sounds before attempting any kind of repetition or improvised creation.

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13
Q

Attentive listening

A

Most people are able to block out any kinds of usual sounds that are not related to their immediate environment, such as honking horns or conversations of others. Many rooms for public or group access also perpetuate this containment of sound with soundproofing created by walls or other barriers to the outside world. Being so removed from natural sounds, people will tune them out when they occur. Music educators work to keep the attention of children riveted on the sounds being played. Perceptive listening requires the child to develop an attitude or persona of attentive listening, or focused listening. Attentive listening is necessary in musical exercises as well as other areas of education and experience. Music educators should provide a time of specific music listening and focus so that children can pay attention to what is being played and learn from it.

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14
Q

Sound exploration areas

A

Young children need a place to experiment with musical instruments and sounds that is separated from other groups that may involved in more directed study. In these sections, children should be free to work with instruments such as the drums, bells, tambourines, shakers, claves, and castanets as loudly or as adamantly as the child chooses. All sound exploration should be hands-on so the child can become more familiar with the instrument and how it can change its sound when played in a different way. The walls of the sound exploration area can be decorated with musical depictions of storybook characters or nursery rhymes, and the words of simple rhymes such as “Hickory, Dickory Dock” can be written out so the children can practice reciting while using their instruments.

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15
Q

Introduction of musical instruments

A

Music educators should not just hand over rhythm or simple instruments to young children and expect them to figure out on their own the required technique or style to create a certain sound. The music educator should give instruction in how to use the instrument and then allow the child to replicate that instruction and eventually improvise from there. Music educators should comment on a child’s production of sound with positive and supportive comments, asking that child to make a louder or softer sound or to change the beat from fast to slow. By educating the child on how to make different sounds on the instrument with different mallets or ways of playing, the music educator can keep the exercise fresh and challenging for the child.

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16
Q

Singing with young children

A

Young children explore their world with a different perspective than adults do, and the sense of touch is especially important when learning new things. Percussion instruments and other simple instruments allow children to see and feel how an accented beat corresponds to music and the words in songs. Rhythmic songs and chants are important for children to see the combination of sounds and beats and apply that process to their own sensory perceptions. When music educators participate in the singing or chanting, they can interact with the children and show them how much fun moving to music and creating music can be for all ages. Through this type of exercise, children can learn how words work together and how they should sound by following the example of the music educator.

17
Q

Rhythmic chants

A

Rhythmic chants can be described as songs that have no melody. The chants or rhymes sung or spoken can expand a child’s vocabulary and provide a basis for future improvisation. Rhythmic chants can also be used by the music educator to transition between tasks in a way that is fun and interesting. The chants also allow the child to memorize certain words and the rhythm or cadence of those words as they fit in the chant or song. When the music educator reintroduces chants or songs that might be used just before a specific activity, such as naptime, he or she can help children get in the right frame of mind just before the change in activity. Softer, freer music should always be used just before naptime while more energetic songs or chants can be incorporated just before recess or physical education classes.

18
Q

Vocal exploration

A

Most children are not comfortable making the transition from speaking voice to singing voice and require some time to experiment on how to make that change. This experimentation is referred to as vocal exploration. The singing voice of young children is usually light and airy without much volume. The music educator should make a point to differentiate between singing loud and shouting as these sounds do not produce the same desired result and should not be confused. Any shouting done by children can strain their voices and further hamper them from finding their singing voice. When they do sing, young children have a limited range of about an octave, from middle C or D to A or the next D.

19
Q

Singing ranges for young children

A

Since young children have a limited range of notes, the songs chosen by the music educators should be appropriate for that range and allow children to sing in their head voice. Many adults will sing in a range that is too low for children, so music educators should consider using a pitch pipe to help children hear the note in its appropriate octave and to help music educators focus their own singing to a range that is acceptable for young voices. However good the intentions of music educators and adults are, however, children may still try to sing too low after listening to popular music. By singing this low, children end up singing in their chest voice. This type of singing may cause vocal damage in severe cases but is always too low for young children.

20
Q

Vocal pitch exercises

A

If children are not continually encouraged to match pitches from toddlers through their preschool and elementary school age, they can lose the ability to replicate or imitate a pitch. Pitch-matching and imitation games allow children to continue this practice and expand their own range of notes whenever engaging in glissandos or siren sounds when singing along with certain songs or creating those sounds at the direction of the music educator. These types of exercises also increase the child’s self-confidence in his or her ability to make music. While young children are able to sing whole songs, they often modulate pitch during the course of the song. Music educators can help retune those singing voices by having students sing using the syllable “loo” at the correct pitch to the tune of familiar songs. The syllable is used because the “oo” sound is the easiest vowel to sing on pitch.

21
Q

Self-listening

A

Singing involves children listening to themselves and others sing and is considered a self-listening activity. This activity allows children to define their own projection of voice and to find their most comfortable singing voice. Children can sing in tune when they can hear the song and the information is transmitted to their brain for them to audiate. Once children can audiate or think the musical sound, they are better able to reproduce that sound. The audiated sound is transmitted to the larynx and projected. Children must be able to hear themselves to sing in tune and so must listen to themselves to sing a song. Music educators should encourage children and parents to allow children to sing by themselves into a tape recorder and then play that recording back so they can hear what they sound like. Music educators should model good singing technique and allow children to sing often.

22
Q

Listening with no movement

A

Children should also be involved in activities where no movement is incorporated while listening to music because the absence of movement will force the child to concentrate on the music being played. The musical mind of the child is dependent on learning how to incorporate movements to music while maintaining an observance of the beat but also on listening to the music as an activity in itself. Nap time can be an excellent opportunity for children to listen to music without combining any physical movements to the beat, and the incorporation of playing the slower, soothing music can also help direct children toward a restful state of mind. This can also provide an avenue for the music educator to introduce a new musical passage that will be used for synchronized movement later.

23
Q

Echo singing

A

A good way for children to learn a new song, as well as match pitches and experiment with rhythm, is by echo singing. Young children are able to learn songs through the repetition of small segments, and echo songs are usually made up of small segments or vocal snippets that are repeated, such as “Frere Jacques.” Echo songs help children learn about changes in intervals and how to correctly pronounce words, and echo songs can be used as a good transition between topics or activities. The songs can be made up on the spot and could consist of 3 or 4 notes used in various rhythmic patterns. Echo songs allow children to progress in their musical abilities toward improvisation.

24
Q

Improvised singing

A

Children will begin to improvise music when they have been exposed to a musical setting or environment in which experimentation has been encouraged. Children may sing to themselves during the completion of a task or during their play, and children may even sing to each other. Improvisation cannot be taught, even by the best music educators, but should be encouraged with students who are experimenting with rhythm and melody on their own. Music educators can encourage this kind of improvisation by having the children create their own songs about what they are doing and even consider setting up a small, low-powered microphone for children to serenade each other and the class. Karaoke is a good way to let young children practice performing in front of each other and improvising.

25
Q

Teaching songs to young children

A

Music educators have to figure out the best way to teach young children the words of songs, especially when those children cannot read yet or not very well and often learn songs by rote. The music educator can sing the same song repeatedly or incorporate different methods of participation for the children to take part. Folk songs and nursery rhymes are easy to teach children since they are usually written in that limited vocal range of children and are composed of small segments. Parents may also be able to sing these songs with their children. Folk songs are usually specific to a culture or area and would probably be shared with each generation. Music educators can also sing to children to teach them a new song that may be too complex for their abilities as yet or to show them how much fun music is.

26
Q

Creative and synchronized movement

A

Movements performed as dance or exercise for young children that are associated with music are classified as either creative movement or synchronized movement. Creative movement gives children a freer avenue for expression and allows them to improvise and enjoy the physical act itself. Synchronized movement follows an established routine and is choreographed to the rhythm and beat of the selected music. Synchronized movement helps children work as a group and see the importance of teamwork, while creative movement allows children to freely express themselves to song. Both types of movement allow children to develop their listening skills and focus on what they are hearing. Focused listening is also considered perceptive or active listening.

27
Q

Model movement

A

Children will often watch the movements of those around them, like older children and adults. Music educators can show their students how to do a particular movement to a song or section of a song and then let the children copy what they see being done. Any of these types of movements should be geared toward the developmental abilities of the children as any kind of movement that is too complex or too involved for children may affect their self-esteem when they are unable to replicate that movement. The child’s particular stage of development is based on the kind of activity and movement ability he or she has experienced. Young girls are often more coordinated than young boys.

28
Q

Using props for synchronized movement

A

Using props during synchronized movement helps children to focus more on the movements as they relate to the music and create them with greater confidence. These props can include such items as scarves, streamers, and ribbons and can show children how freedom of movement can be combined with continuous flow. A parachute is an increasingly popular prop for teaching synchronized movement to music as each child can participate in the raising or lowering of the parachute as well as the rotating or just standing in place. The smaller items such as scarves can also be used to demonstrate slower and more deliberate movement to music, and some music educators have found success by giving the child a half-filled container of water to move slowly across the room while listening to music.

29
Q

Reading measures

A

Music is written in measures within the staff. To introduce young children to understanding the concept of the measure, the music educator should have the children count the measures or sections separated by bar lines. Much of today’s sheet music will provide a count for the measure so that professional musicians can follow along when they are not playing or so the conductor can call attention to a particular part of the music. Music educators can ask children to count the measures and to locate a specific measure of the music. Once children are comfortable with the basic format for musical notation, they can be instructed more effectively on how to interpret other musical notations, such as the time signature or the rhythm.

30
Q

Reading time signatures

A

Music educators can show children how each measure contains a specific number of beats and how that is indicated at the beginning of the first measure with the time signature. Music educators can show students that the top note of the time signature tells how many beats occur in the measure and the bottom note shows which note gets 1 beat. The music educator can explain how a 4/4 time signature shows that there are 4 beats in each measure, counted as 1, 2, 3, 4. Contrasting that with a 3/4 time signature, the music educator can show that there are only 3 beats in each measure and then ask students what other time signatures would show. Eventually, music educators can show students about the mathematical relationship between quarter notes and half notes, whole notes, and sixteenth notes.

31
Q

Exploring rhythm, beat, and tempo

A

Rhythm is the pattern of long and short sounds. Music educators could begin a discussion about beat by taking a simple song like “Mary Had a Little Lamb” and clapping each syllable. The rhythm associated with the syllables will be more obvious when children can focus on the clapping instead of the words.
Beat is the pulse of the music which might speed up or slow down during the course of the music. Music educators should have students practice grouping beats together so that the first of 3 or 4 beats receives the emphasis. While chanting out the specific beat pattern, the students could march. This exercise will demonstrate more fully how music is grouped together in musical notation. Tempo is the speed of the music. Music educators should help students learn the distinction between slow, moderate, and fast tempos by speeding up or slowing down their students’ recitation.

32
Q

Rhythm instruments

A

Rhythm instruments such as shakers, cowbells, tambourines, and drums are the easiest to work with when instructing children about rhythm, beat, and tempo as they are small and easy to teach children how to use correctly. Whether using these instruments to indicate each syllable or to set up a tempo for the singing of the song, such as “Hot Cross Buns” or “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” children should have already been introduced to these instruments and how they work and produce sound; otherwise, the children will focus entirely on how the instrument works and not use it in the way being directed by the music educator. This will prohibit any kind of attentive listening to the structure of the music and possibly create noisy pandemonium. Once students are familiar with how sounds are produced, they can be instructed to incorporate those sounds in their exercises.

33
Q

Reading rhythm

A

The bottom number of the time signature becomes important when music educators try to teach children how to read rhythm. The bottom number shows which note gets 1 beat. In the 4/4 time signature, the quarter note gets 1 beat and is counted as 1, 2, 3, 4 within the measure. A mathematical explanation of how the bottom number relates to other notes can be incorporated into the lesson, and children can see how 2 half notes are counted as 1, 3 while 8 eighth notes are counted as 1 &, 2 &, 3&, 4&. This exercise combines a study of math with the basic fundamentals of music, and music educators can work the children toward reading combinations of the notes and playing or clapping those rhythms.

34
Q

Recognizing rhythm

A

Once young children have grasped the concept of reading the rhythm and are comfortable with the musical notation, the music educator should lead them in the clapping of the beats for songs that are familiar, such as “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” This exercise will allow children to associate their lesson on rhythm with music they know. Music educators can also clap a measure or phrase and have the children clap the same pattern back. This will involve the children in the motor skills exercise of clapping with the perceptive listening of the rhythm and the particular emphasis as it is placed on the first note or another accented note within the phrase.

35
Q

Motor skills while improvising

A

As children get older, their vocabulary and abilities of adding experiences and movements to their personal repertoire increases. Music educators can assist children in their ability to improve their motor skills while improvising or singing new songs. Children between 5 and 9 enjoy games that involve rhythm and rhyme, so jump rope rhymes or chants are a great way to show children that music can be fun and entertaining. The music educator can show children a simple or even age-specific complex rhyme or chant, and the children can add clapping or stomping as they become more familiar with the rhyme and feel comfortable enough to improvise. Such rhymes include “Teddy Bear, Teddy Bear” and “The Lady with the Alligator Purse.”

36
Q

Encouraging perceptive listening

A

Music educators can create listening games for children to verify they are actively or perceptively listening to the music being played and not just hearing the notes or focusing on the words. Some music educators create a music detectives club where children are encouraged to select a piece of music and identify the different portions as listed on a card. Children can listen to the piece, such as Haydn’s Toy Symphony, and check space on the card next to the trumpet or bird whistle or ratchet as it is played. Once several students have completed this exercise, the music educator can group them together to discuss what was heard. The group can then listen to the piece again and point out the different voices that some of the others may have missed.