muscle attachements Flashcards
pec major
cc 1-6
aponeaurosis EAO
pec minor
3rd-5th ribs, and inserts into the coracoid process of the scapula.
serratus anterior
1-8
Above the level of the umbilicus, which structures
form the anterior and
posterior layers of the rectus sheath?
Above articulate line
anterior IO combine EO
Superior IO with TA
Below
anterior EO,IO, TA
posterior
transversalis fascia and peritoneum
Activating mutations
- Ras (GTPase),
- Tyrosine Kinase receptor (EGRF) – (constitutively activated regardless of input signal),
- MAP Kinase (Raf - over expression),
- Myc (TF).
Spontaneous mutations
Errors in DNA replication (including abnormal methylation)
10-6 per gene per cell division
Induced mutations
Exposure to endogenous carcinogens
Exposure to environmental
inactivating
Inactivating mutations to TSG
APC – Controls how often a cell divides Rb – Cell Cycle control at G1 CDK Inhibitor - Cell Cycle control at G1/S and G2/M p53 - Cell Cycle control at G1/S; DNA repair
PAH
polycyclin aromatic hydrocarbons
Were are PAH found and give an example
cigarette smoke
Burnt toast
Benzo [a] pyrene
Mechanism of benzo [a] pyrene
Formation of bulky DNA adducts
Leads to base pair changes in DNA
Purine to pyrimidine transversions
Intercalates in DNA Covalently bonds to G bases distortion of DNA (G to T) Induction of mutation inactivates TS`s such as…
Alkaylating agents
double edged sword (can stop tumour growth by cross-linking
G-bases in DNA strands, but also cause damage)
u.v radiation
Exposure to UV induces cross linking between adjacent pyrimidines
Called pyrimidine dimers
Seen as CC-TT “tandem double” substitutions in DNA – research also shows this can happen via ROS
carcinogen alcohol
metabolites acetylydehyde
carcinogen food
aflaxotoxin b1 fungi
DNA repair mechanism
De-alkylating enzymes – prevent apoptosis/mutagenesis
DNA alkyl transferase
removes methyl and ethyl adducts from guanine
Base excision repair - removal of modified bases in the DNA
main enzyme is DNA glycosylase
gap filled in by polymerase and ligase
Nucleotide excision repair – bulky distortions in DNA
takes away whole single stranded strip of DNA (~24bp)
filled in by DNA polymerase using undamaged strand as template
HPV 16
oncoproteinE7 targets Rb - rapid degradation- cancer
E6 targets p53
Cytochrome p450
P = pigment, 450 = nM absorption in experiments
Drug metabolising enzymes that also make cholesterol, lipids and steroids
Membrane bound, contain heme group – originally discovered in rat liver microsomes in 1958
Involved in removing carcinogenic compounds from body but can also turn a pro-carcinogen to a carcinogen!!
