Multiple Choice Questions

Question 1

Atkinson’s Model of Achievement

Answer 1

• Atkinson’s Expectancy × Value model focuses on the struggle between approach and avoidance tendencies in achievement behavior.
• It views achievement motivation as a balance between the desire to succeed and the fear of failure.
• The model considers four key variables: the need for achievement (Ms), probability of success (Ps), incentive for success (Is), and achievement behavior (Ts).
• Achievement behavior depends on the interaction of these variables, with the formula Ts = Ms × Ps × Is representing the tendency to approach success.

Question 2

How does Atkinson’s model explain our tendency to approach success?

Tendency to Succeed

Answer 2

• The variable Is represents how much motivation someone has to succeed, and it’s calculated as 1 minus the chance of success (Ps).
• When success is less likely (Ps is low), the motivation to succeed (Is) is higher.
• For example, if there’s a 25% chance of success (Ps = 0.25), the motivation to succeed would be 75% (Is = 1 - 0.25 = 0.75).
• In a wrestling scenario, facing a tough opponent with a low chance of winning gives a wrestler a strong motivation to succeed.
• When facing an opponent of similar skill with a moderate chance of winning, the motivation to succeed is lower but still significant.
• Atkinson’s theory suggests that facing challenges with a moderate chance of success provides the best motivation because it combines a decent chance of winning with a strong desire to succeed.

Question 3

How does Atkinson’s model explain our tendency to approach success?

Tendency to Fail

Answer 3

• The tendency to avoid failure is driven by the desire to protect self-esteem, social standing, and avoid embarrassment.
• The formula for the tendency to avoid failure (Taf) is Taf = Maf × Pf × If.
• Maf represents the motive to avoid failure.
• Pf represents the probability of failure, calculated as 1 minus the probability of success (1 − Ps).
• If represents the negative incentive value for failure, calculated as 1 minus the probability of failure (If = 1 − Pf).
• For example, if the motive to avoid failure is 10 and the probability of failure is 0.9 (meaning a 90% chance of failure), then the tendency to avoid failure on a difficult task would be 0.90 (10 × 0.9 × 0.1).

Question 4

How does Atkinson’s model explain our tendency to approach success?

Combined Approach and Avoidance Tendencies

Answer 4

• Ms represents the motivational force to seek out achievement situations.
• Maf represents the motivational force to escape from achievement situations.
• Engaging in achievement tasks involves balancing the attraction of pride, hope, and social respect against the repulsion of shame, fear, and social humiliation.
• When Ts (tendency to approach success) is greater than Taf (tendency to avoid failure), the person approaches the opportunity to test personal competence.
• Atkinson’s formula for predicting the tendency to achieve (Ta) and related behaviors is Ta = Ts - Taf, where Ta represents the tendency to achieve.
• The complete formula is: Ta = (Ms × Ps × Is) - (Maf × Pf × If)

Question 5

Dynamics of Action Model

Answer 5

• Atkinson’s theory predicts what people will do in specific situations based on their underlying drive for achievement and the chance of success they perceive.
• The dynamics-of-action model expands this idea by explaining how achievement behavior changes over time.
• It says our actions are influenced by three things: wanting to start something (instigation), wanting to avoid something (inhibition), and feeling satisfied once we’ve done it (consummation).
• Instigation is like wanting to do something, inhibition is wanting to avoid it, and consummation is feeling done with it.
• Understanding consummation helps us see that our motivation changes as we engage in an activity.
• This model also explains how we decide when to start, how long to keep going, and when to take a break from an achievement task.

Question 6

McClelland’s Model

Answer 6

• McClelland’s model highlights three key needs: achievement, power, and affiliation.
• He used a version of the Thematic Apperception Test to assess these needs.
• High achievers are more likely to succeed in roles valuing personal accomplishment.
• This theory aids in hiring and job placement, potentially boosting job satisfaction and performance.
• Intervention programs, like achievement training, are based on this theory to enhance workplace motivation.
• Critics question its applicability across diverse cultures and organizations.
• The use of projective techniques like the TAT may introduce subjectivity and interpretation biases, affecting the reliability and validity of assessments.

Question 7

Behavioural Inhibition & Behavioural Activation Systems

Answer 7

• Behavioral Activation System (BAS):
• Associated with an active and sensitive left prefrontal cortex, akin to extraversion.
• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS):
• Linked to an active and sensitive right prefrontal cortex, similar to neuroticism.

Question 8

TOTE Model

Answer 8

• Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) model is a cognitive mechanism that governs behavior.
• “Test” involves comparing the present state with the ideal state.
• If present and ideal states match (congruous), no action is taken.
• Mismatch (incongruity) motivates action to operate on the environment via a plan.
• For example, checking if your hair looks okay in the mirror; if okay, no action, but if not, combing hair.
• After action, re-test present state against the ideal; if incongruity persists, continue operating.
• Daily life example: Look in mirror, comb hair, re-check, continue if needed; stop when present matches ideal.

Question 9

Corrective Motivation

Answer 9

• Plan → action sequence involves:
  1. Detecting present-ideal inconsistencies.
  2. Generating a plan to eliminate incongruity.
  3. Instigating plan-regulated behavior.
  4. Monitoring feedback for remaining incongruity.
• Plans are adjustable and subject to revision, reflecting human decision-making.
• Incongruity prompts “corrective motivation” rather than automatic action.
• Corrective motivation involves considering options: adjust plan, change behavior, or abandon plan.
• Plan-directed behavior is dynamic, driven by corrective motivation for the most adaptive course.

Question 10

Discrepancy

Answer 10

• Discrepancy arises from the difference between one’s present state and ideal state.
• Present state reflects current life status, while the ideal state represents desired life circumstances.
• Discrepancy motivates change to move closer to the ideal state.
• Behavior aims to bridge the gap between present and ideal states.
• Rate of discrepancy reduction influences affect or feelings.
• Positive emotion arises from satisfactory progress toward reducing discrepancy, while negative emotion arises from unsatisfactory progress.
• Negative emotions like frustration, irritation, and anxiety energize effort to reduce discrepancy.
• Demotivating emotions like sadness and despair suggest effort is futile, leading to a tendency to quit.
• Emotions can energize behavior, with negative emotions prompting increased effort.
• Successful behavior turns off negative emotion, while exceeding expectations may lead to a more relaxed approach.

Question 11

Distinguish between discrepancy creation and discrepancy reduction

Discrepancy Creation

Answer 11

• Discrepancy creation involves setting a future, higher goal through a “feed-forward” system.
• Individuals proactively establish ideal states without external imposition.
• For example, a salesperson might set a goal of 15 sales per week instead of the usual 10.
• Discrepancy creation functions as a positive feedback loop.
• Action is taken to address the newly created discrepancy, which energizes further discrepancy creation.
• Positive feedback reinforces the pursuit of new, higher goals.
• In both cases, the discrepancy serves as the motivational driver for action.

Question 12

Distinguish between discrepancy creation and discrepancy reduction

Discrepancy Reduction

Answer 12

• Discrepancy reduction relies on feedback from the environment to detect discrepancies between current performance and ideal levels.
• For example, a supervisor may inform a salesperson that they need to achieve 15 sales instead of 10.
• This feedback highlights the standard of excellence and prompts the individual to assess their current performance.
• Discrepancy reduction operates as a negative feedback loop.
• When a discrepancy is identified, action is taken to address it.
• Negative feedback indicates that the discrepancy is decreasing, signaling successful action.
• Ultimately, the negative feedback loop turns off existing discrepancies by bringing performance closer to the ideal level.

Question 13

Bandura

Vicarious Experiences

Answer 13

• Vicarious experience involves observing someone else perform an action before doing it yourself.
• Witnessing a model execute a behavior effectively boosts the observer’s confidence in their own ability.
• This occurs because watching someone similar to oneself succeed triggers a social comparison process, leading to thoughts like “If they can do it, so can I.”
• Conversely, observing someone struggle with the same behavior diminishes the observer’s confidence.
• The impact of a model’s performance on the observer’s confidence depends on two factors:
  1. Similarity between the model and the observer: Greater similarity results in a stronger influence on the observer’s confidence.
  2. Observer’s experience level: Novices are more affected by vicarious experiences, particularly if they observe similar others performing the action.

Question 14

Self Efficacy Effect on Behavior

Answer 14

• Self-efficacy beliefs influence the level of effort and persistence individuals exert when facing challenges.
• Those with high self-efficacy are more likely to tackle difficult tasks with determination, while those with low self-efficacy may avoid such tasks or give up easily.
• Self-efficacy affects various aspects of behavior:
  1.Activity choice and environment selection: People with high self-efficacy are more likely to choose challenging activities and environments.
  2. Effort and persistence: Individuals with high self-efficacy invest more effort and persist longer when working towards goals.
  3. Quality of thinking and decision-making: Self-efficacy influences the clarity and effectiveness of cognitive processes during task performance.
  4. Emotional reactions, especially stress and anxiety: High self-efficacy can buffer against negative emotions, while low self-efficacy may exacerbate them.