Cognition & Motivation I

Question 1

Explain the statement “it is the extent of the discrepancy and not the ideal state that determines motivation”

Answer 1

• Discrepancy, synonymous with “incongruity,” highlights the difference between one’s present state and ideal state.
• The present state reflects the individual’s current life status, while the ideal state represents their desired life situation.
• When the present state falls short of the ideal, a motivational discrepancy emerges, prompting a desire for change.
• The motivational focus lies not on the ideal state itself but on the extent of the discrepancy between present and ideal states.
• Small discrepancies yield little motivation, while large ones drive significant motivation.
• To increase motivation, individuals are advised to create an ideal state in their minds and reflect on the discrepancy between present reality and desired outcomes.

Question 2

Distinguish between discrepancy creation and discrepancy reduction

Discrepancy Creation

Answer 2

• Discrepancy creation involves a “feed-forward” system where individuals set future, higher goals.
• This process is proactive, with individuals deliberately setting higher goals that do not yet exist except in their minds, without needing external feedback.
• It operates as a positive feedback loop, where a discrepancy is created, action is taken, and positive feedback energizes further discrepancy creation.
• This loop perpetuates by turning on new discrepancies, fueling continuous goal-setting and action-taking.

Question 3

Distinguish between discrepancy creation and discrepancy reduction

Discrepancy Reduction

Answer 3

• Discrepancy reduction depends on feedback detecting differences between current and ideal performance.
• Environmental cues, like feedback from a boss or opponent, show how well current performance matches ideal standards.
• For instance, a supervisor might say more sales are needed for ideal performance.
• Discrepancy reduction works as a negative feedback loop: a discrepancy arises, action is taken, and negative feedback (discrepancy decreasing) halts that action.
• This loop shuts down existing discrepancies, prompting behavior adjustments to meet ideal standards.

Question 4

Goal Difficulty

Answer 4

• Goal difficulty refers to how challenging a goal is to achieve.
• Performance increases linearly as goals become more difficult.
• Difficult goals energize behavior, leading to increased effort and persistence.
• Difficult goals promote persistence, as effort continues until the goal is achieved.
• They also decrease the likelihood of distraction or premature giving up.
• With difficult goals, effort and persistence continue until the goal is accomplished, regardless of boredom, frustration, tiredness, or distractions.

Question 5

Goal Specificity

Answer 5

• Goal specificity refers to how clearly a goal informs the performer of what they need to do.
• Specific goals are restated in numerical terms or expressed with precise instructions.
• Specific goals draw attention to the task at hand, reducing ambiguity and variability in performance.
• They focus the individual’s attention and tell the performer where to concentrate.
• Specific goals prompt performers to plan strategically and use task knowledge and strategies.

Question 6

Self-Concordant Goals

Answer 6

• Self-congruent goals are in sync with personal interests, needs, values, and preferences, creating a sense of authenticity.
• Conversely, self-discrepant goals stem from external pressures, feeling artificial and at odds with one’s true self.
• Goal concordance is vital as it allows individuals to tap into intrinsic motivation and personal values, fueling sustained effort and persistence.
• Self-concordant goals facilitate natural attention and strategic planning, driven by inner motivation.
• They empower individuals to maintain focus, overcome challenges, and stay resilient in pursuit of their goals.

Question 7

Explain the relation between feedback and goal setting.

Answer 7

• Difficult, specific, and self-concordant goals enhance performance, but effective goal setting requires timely feedback.
• Feedback, or knowledge of results, allows individuals to track progress towards their goals.
• Without feedback, performance may lack emotional significance and engagement.
• Feedback relies on goals as a standard of performance, enabling individuals to evaluate their progress.
• The combination of goals with feedback creates emotionally meaningful experiences.
• Feedback emotionally motivates and affects goal setting through feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Question 8

Getting started, staying on track, and resuming goals?

Getting Started

Answer 8

• Setting goals is crucial, but how they’re set matters for success.
• Implementation intentions help bridge the gap between setting goals and achieving them.
• They prompt action by outlining when, where, and how goals will be pursued.
• Implementation intentions address short-term distractions and challenges, ensuring focus on long-term goals.
• By preparing for unexpected obstacles, implementation intentions help maintain progress towards goals.

Question 9

Getting started, staying on track, and resuming goals?

Staying on Track

Answer 9

• Implementation intentions protect against goal derailment by anticipating and addressing challenges.
• They facilitate persistence by preparing responses to potential difficulties in advance.
• Dieters and athletes use implementation intentions to stay focused on their goals.
• In a study with elementary-grade students, those with implementation intentions were more successful at ignoring distractions and spending more time on task compared to those with only goal intentions.

Question 10

Getting started, staying on track, and resuming goals?

Resuming Goals

Answer 10

• Implementation intentions aid in completing unfinished goals.
• In a study with workers interrupted while writing letters, those who formed implementation intentions to finish the letters upon their return were more successful in completing their unfinished tasks compared to those without such intentions.
• This demonstrates the effectiveness of implementation intentions in helping individuals follow through on incomplete tasks and overcome interruptions.