Multiple- 3 markers

Question 1

principle of identity

Answer 1

Everything is identical to itself

Question 1

principle of sufficient reason

Answer 1

Everything that happens/exists must have a sufficient cause/basis/explanation

Question 2

a priori knowledge (vs) a posteriori knowledge

Answer 2

A priori knowledge is (propositional) knowledge that is justifiable independently of experience (ie justified without needing any experience).

Question 3

an a priori argument (vs) an a posteriori argument

Answer 3

The former are arguments in which all of the premises are a priori; The latter are arguments in which at least one premise is a posteriori.

Question 4

analytic proposition (truth/falsehood)

Answer 4

A proposition whose truth or falsity depends ONLY upon the meanings of its constituent terms/concepts (and how they’re combined).

Question 5

synthetic proposition (truth/falsehood)

Answer 5

A proposition whose truth or falsity depends upon how reality is (and not only on the meanings of its constituent terms/concepts (and how they’re combined))

Question 6

antecedent (and) consequent

Answer 6

In a hypothetical/conditional “if….then…” statement, the antecedent is the “if” part of the statement and the consequent is the part that follows the word “then”.

Question 7

argument from analogy

Answer 7

A particular type of inductive argument, whereby known/perceived similarities are used as a basis to infer some further similarity that has not been observed. Here is the form of such an argument: a and b are similar with respect to properties P, Q, and R; In a, P, Q and R are caused by / explained by X; Similar effects / properties typically have similar causes / explanations; Therefore, in b, P, Q and R are (probably) also caused by / explained by X (or something similar enough to X)

Question 8

assertion/claim

Answer 8

An utterence / kind of speech act, typically carried out by the utterance of a declarative sentence in which a proposition is presented as true.

Question 9

a circular definition/explanation

Answer 9

When the term being defined/explained is part of the (ultimate) definition/explanation of the term.

Question 10

p is conceivable

Answer 10

p is able to be thought. Normally it is assumed that we mean by this, “p is able to be thought without contradiction”.

Question 11

dilemma

Answer 11

A situation/argument in which all options are, in some sense, unsatisfactory.

Question 12

introspection / introspective access / introspective self-knowledge

Answer 12

The process by which one is directly aware of one’s own mind now and one’s current mental states.

Question 13

necessary (truth) (vs) contingent (truth)

Answer 13

The former is a proposition that is true in all logically possible worlds (i.e. it could not (possibly) have been false); The latter is a proposition that is true in the actual world (and maybe in other possible worlds) but false in at least one possible world (i.e. it could (possibly have been false)

Question 14

paradox

Answer 14

Where sound (or apparently sound) reasoning from what seem to be true premises, leads to a conclusion that seems logically unacceptable or self-contradictory.

Question 15

phenomenology

Answer 15

The study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view / how things seem from the first-person point of view

Question 16

sound argument

Answer 16

A sound argument is an argument that (a) is valid (i.e. the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion) and (b) has premises that are all in fact true.

Question 17

unsound argument

Answer 17

An unsound argument is an argument that either (a) is not valid (i.e. the truth of the premises does NOT logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion) or (b) has at least one false premise or (c) both.

Question 18

tautology

Answer 18

An analytic truth: A true proposition whose truth depends ONLY upon the meanings of its constituent terms/concepts (and how they’re combined).

Question 19

valid argument

Answer 19

An argument in which the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion; if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true; it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false

Question 20

invalid argument

Answer 20

An argument in which the truth of the premises does NOT logically guarantee the truth of the conclusion; it is possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false.

Question 21

verification principle (Ayer)

Answer 21

“A proposition is meaningful if and only if either: (1) it is analytically true/false
or (2a) (Strong version) its truth can be conclusively empirically verified in practice; or at least (2a) (Weak version) its probable truth could be empirically verified in principle.”