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ANTH331 - Sex and Gender > MT1 > Flashcards

MT1 Flashcards

1
Q

Define gender

A

Socially constructed interpretation of ones sex (differences)

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2
Q

Are gender differences innate?

A

No - gender differences based on sex differences but not natural

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3
Q

Define gender identity

A

An individuals subjective opinion of being masculine/feminine/ambivalent (self)

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4
Q

Define gender stereotype

A

Socially constructed notion of appropriate behaviors for each sex

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5
Q

Differentiate between gender ID and stereotype

A

ID - internal, self-belief
Stereotype - social construct
of appropriate behaviors/attitude for individual based on sex

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6
Q

Are gender stereotypes fixed?

A

Subject to change through time

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7
Q

Does the 2 sex/gender system work?

A

No - doesn’t account for everyone

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8
Q

Define transgender

A

An individual who’s gender identity doesn’t match with their biological sex

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9
Q

Define sex

A

Physical traits that differentiate males and females

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10
Q

What makes someone a male/female? (sex)

A

XX (f) and XY (m) chromosomes in general - idea is challenged though

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11
Q

Differentiate sex and gender

A

Sex is biologically defined;gender is socially constructed interpretation of males/females//masc/fem

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12
Q

How different are men and women? (hypothesis)

A

Similarities exceed differences between men and women

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13
Q

Explain and differentiate between the gender differences and similarities hypothesis

A

Differences explore differences among sexes
Similarities look for similarities
Similarities > Differences

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14
Q

Gender differences hypothesis leads to ________ trap

A

Essentialism

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15
Q

What is essentialism?

A

Belief that gender roles are innate - not social constructs

eg. anatomy is design

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16
Q

What are the 4 ‘biological’ arguments used to exclude women from combat duty? (Peach-GCCP)

A

Male strength hypothesis
Male aggression hypothesis
Women’s childbearing hypothesis
Male bonding hypothesis

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17
Q

What is the male strength hypothesis? What is its flaw/correction?

A

Men are inherently stronger than women - so only men should enter combat. Tells women that they can’t fight based on gender difference instead of physical trait - should measure soldier capacity based on strength

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18
Q

What is the male aggression hypothesis? What is wrong with it?

A

Men are inherently more aggressive than women - based on incomplete studies of primates. Not proven - aggression can potentially be conditioned.

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19
Q

What is the female child bearing hypothesis? (2)

A

Pregnancy/motherhood debilitates combat effectiveness and logistics. Logistic issue addressed with planning. Women are natural caregivers - should be center of family. Not true - gender roles designate women to be caregivers, not biological factors

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20
Q

What is the male bonding hypothesis? Why is it flawed? (3)

A

Women deter male-male bonding. Not the case - this ignores bro-sis bonds, shared experiences, and strong leadership

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21
Q

What are 2 myths used to prevent women from entering active combat duty? Briefly describe them.

A

Male warrior - military is masculine - use male performance as benchmark - women out of place
Female protection - women need to be protected

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22
Q

Why is the idea of a female in war an issue? (Dichotomy - male warrior/female nurturer)

A

Masc/fem ideas socially constructed - society doesn’t tolerate trait overlap

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23
Q

What are gender displays/codes?

A

Learned, constructed signals that are distinguished as feminine or masculine

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24
Q

What is the ritualization of subordination?

A

Women being portrayed as helpless, unaware, weak, positions where they cannot defend themselves (laying down) - sexualized

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25
Q

What are canting postures?

A

Bent (canted) postures - neck, hips, knee, hands - awkward, off balance positions - signal weakness

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26
Q

How do female athletes interact with gender codes?

A

Female athletes are symbols of power and success - yet they are portrayed (RoS, canting postures) as weak

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27
Q

What are gender codes/displays of masculinity?

A

Everything a woman is not - strong, aware, ready to act

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28
Q

How have gender displays of masculinity changed?

A

Inclusion of awkward, defenseless positions (fem) - balanced by presence of broad, definable muscles (masc) or the addition of women

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29
Q

Where do gender codes come from? What are John Berger’s ideas?

A

Strong connection to early oil paintings - women something to look at

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30
Q

How is the Guess campaign deconstructed?

A

Wanted to capture the essence of the 50’s - women were respected but knew their place - use of RoS, canting postures to portray femininity (weakness) - black and white photography

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31
Q

What is the difference between animal models and animal role models?

A

Models - model for animal behavior to learn biological solutions
Role model - model human behavior to animal behavior

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32
Q

What is the naturalistic fallacy?

A

Notion that anything natural is good/inevitable.

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33
Q

What is evolution?

A

Change in gene frequency over time

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34
Q

What is evolution by natural selection?

A

Change in gene frequency over time due to different environmental pressures

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35
Q

What is differential reproduction? (NS)

A

Difference in reproductive success - caused by individuals being selected by environment

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36
Q

What is reproductive success?

A

A count of how many offspring an individual has

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37
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The process where individuals possessing traits better suited for the environment are more likely to reproduce and pass on selected genes

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38
Q

What are the 4 caveats to natural selection?

A

No conscious strategizing
Talking about averages
Adaptive behaviors subject to change
Accidents happen

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39
Q

Explain proximate and ultimate triggers/reactions

A

Proximate - immediate trigger (in the moment)

Ultimate - evolutionary trigger - always concerns reproductive success

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40
Q

Does evolutionary theory predict that there is a lot of differences between males and females?

A

No - both sexes go through same environmental selection pressures and will have similar traits

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41
Q

What domains are sex differences found?

A

Mating/reproduction

42
Q

What are sex limited traits?

A

Traits found in one sex - more extreme traits usually found in males (sex with higher sexual variation)

43
Q

Sex limited traits are ______ to produce and ________ to survival.

A

costly, detrimental

44
Q

What is sexual selection?

A

Theory explaining sex differences - sexes respond to reproductive pressures - impacts reproductive success

45
Q

What are the two mechanisms of sexual selection?

A

intrasexual competition and intersexual choice

46
Q

What are 3 ways males compete? (intrasexual competition)

A

exclude rivals from mates
mate often
mate at night

47
Q

What is intersexual selection?

A

Typically female choice in mate selection - they select/prefer specific traits in a mate

48
Q

Explain the courtship ritual of a sage grouse. Is the inter or intra sexual competition?

A

Males create audio/visual show for females - female choose mates based on display
intersexual selection

49
Q

Explain the courtship ritual of a bower bird. Is the inter or intra sexual competition?

A

Male creates bower - female examines nest

intersexual selection

50
Q

What do females select for? (hypothesis)

A

Good genes hypothesis - male traits display good health

51
Q

What display/ornament/strategy goes with the following animals?
Superb Lyre
Capuchin Monkey
Jumping Spider

A

Lyre - elaborate tail, able to replicate sounds
Capuchin - drums on tree trunk
Spider - elaborate dance and vibrations

52
Q

What display/ornament/strategy goes with orange/yellow/blue side blotched lizards? Is there a dominant strategy?

A

Orange - aggression
Yellow - stealth
Blue - team work
No - All strategies about the same

53
Q

What is female cryptic choice?

A

The ability to select sperm to use from different mates

54
Q

What happens during second mating for female garter snakes? Why do females mate with multiple males?

A

Female challenges males - selects for stronger male to mate with
Female initial mating is forced - she is still cold when she leaves hibernation and males swarm her - second mating allows female to select for desirable male

55
Q

Why does the duck male phallus have a complicated shape?

A

Female ducks oviducts have elaborate shape to avoid contraception with mates she does not prefer

56
Q

What is so special about the Manakin Bird’s wing bone?

A

Inner wing has ridge - bone is thicker instead of hollow

57
Q

Explain parental investment theory

A

Any investment a parent makes to its offspring AT THE COST of another offspring - finite budget
could be time/sperm/ovum

58
Q

Do females have maternal instinct given high female investment?

A

No - link to higher female investment does not mean that female has maternal instinct

59
Q

What are the reproductive consequences of reproduction differential?

A

Females have lower reproductive potential than males

60
Q

Females have ____ reproductive variance, where is male reproductive variance is ______

A

low;high

61
Q

What is the principle in sex differences in reproductive success variance called?

A

Bateman’s Principle

62
Q

What is so different about Red-necked Phalaropes? (SS)

A

Females have higher reproductive variance than males

63
Q

Are limiting factors for reproductive success different for males and females?

A

Yes - females (food - energy sources) –

males - access to mates

64
Q

What leads to a differential in reproductive strategies between sexes?

A

Differential in parental investment

65
Q

Why would one sex be more picky over a mate of the opposite sex?

A

Sex with higher parental investment will be more selective - cost of making a mistake is high

66
Q

What are the findings from the Jamaican dance experiment? (3)

A

Symmetrical individuals are preferred
Symmetrical males rated higher than symmetrical females
Female evaluator holds stronger preference for symmetrical males; MORE SO than male preference for symmetrical females

67
Q

_________ in bilateral traits may indicate good health

A

Symmetry

68
Q

What is unique about male phalaropes?

A

Males have higher parental investment

69
Q

What four facts/studied were examined to evaluate physical aggression?

A
  • studies in young children - aggro capped at 2 and declined
  • crime statistics - overwhelmingly majority male
  • meta analysis found male aggression reliably large
  • studies in animals showed larger male aggression
70
Q

What can we rule out as a cause of sex differences in physical aggression? What can we rule in? (3)

A

Out - anger, testosterone

In - males more likely to engage in risky behavior in conflicts with other males

71
Q

Why can we rule out testosterone as a factor male aggression?

A

Testosterone levels rise in response of challenge; not because males have high testosterone that they engage in challenges - challenge hypothesis

72
Q

What is the challenge hypothesis? Does it apply to women?

A

Testosterone levels rise in anticipation of challenge - winner has higher T levels than loser.
Applies to women as well

73
Q

What is risky behavior?

A

Behavior involving cost - framed towards benefit of action

74
Q

Why are males more likely to undertake risky behaviors than females? Explain in respect to sexual selection.

A

Males more likely to engage in behavior with huge payoff (ability to reproduce). Huge payoffs inherently have huge risks including physical aggression

75
Q

What evidence of male-male aggression do we have from our ancestors? What has changed in contemporary society?

A

Dimorphic size difference - males almost twice as large as women.
Men and women almost same size now - male-male competition through means other than physical aggression

76
Q

What is the difference between dominance and prestige?

A

Dominance -the ability to inflict harm to win confrontations - use of force (agonism)
Prestige - the possession of desirable items/traits - attractive to opposite gender (perceived value)

77
Q

Define agonism

A

Application of physical force to win confrontations

78
Q

How do dominance and prestige differ in maintaining social asymmetries?

A

Dominance uses agonism - force to maintain dominance

Prestige uses deference (submission) to maintain asymmetry

79
Q

In contemporary society, do prestigious men have higher reproductive success?

A

In both underdeveloped and developed societies, there is empirical evidence that suggests prestigious men have more reproductive success

80
Q

Is the infant mortality rate higher or lower for prestigious men? Why is this possible?

A

Lower - suggests healthier offspring. Prestigious men are likely to have more access resources that enhance fitness

81
Q

Do women prefer high status men? What are some (4) caveats of this?

A

In general - high status will increase probability male will be reproductively successful and suggest that female choice and male status move the same direction
Caveats: women may seek more than just status (parental investment, intelligence), we refer to averages, there is cost to social status, social status not permanent

82
Q

Do women with higher social status have higher reproductive success? What helps explain this relationship?

A

No - inversely correlated. One factor impacting this is female age at first childbirth - which ties to limiting factor to female reproduction (females have lower reproductive potential)

83
Q

What is the difference between direct and indirect competition? Which sex is more likely to engage in each?

A

Direct - use of force - males

Indirect - use of manipulation/social structure to harm target

84
Q

What are the goals of indirection competition? (2)

A

Ostracism - exclude target

Derogation - to degrade social status of target, decreasing their relative value

85
Q

Explain findings from the experiment that pitted young boys and girls to compete for a scarce resource (puppet). (2)

A

Individualistic competition, males - high risk, high payoff

Alliances, females - low risk, low payoff

86
Q

Explain a study that displays human female intrasexual competition.

A

Target (dressed conservatively or provocatively) enters room with 2 subjects (women, paired with friend or stranger). Test subject reaction to target - found that subjects reacted negatively to provocatively dressed target (more so if subjects paired with friends)

87
Q

Why would it be advantageous to use indirect aggression?

A

Just as effective as direct, with lower risk - female targets impacted more than male targets

88
Q

What are the two main physical differences between men and women?

A

Size and reproductive biology

89
Q

Differentiate between sex roles and gender roles

A

Sex - Roles men/women perform are biologically determined

Gender - roles men/women take are culturally created

90
Q

Explain the biological asymmetry argument

A

Men and women physically different - thus should have different roles. These roles were thought to be universal.

91
Q

What are human origin models and what are their 2 hallmarks?

A

Reconstruct human life in the past - 2 hallmarks include task assignment and different value of tasks

92
Q

What are the two main fitness benefits incorporated from a grandmother’s help? (Hadza)

A

Offspring are heavier (healthier), mothers have shorter interbirth intervals

93
Q

Explain the man-hunter (2) and (tasks, value) and its main criticisms (2)

A

Man-hunter - men hunt (socially, big game) and have high value, male-female pair bonded

  • Big game hunting has low success rate, hunter families typically get small share of catch
  • grandmother-grandchild bond important
94
Q

Explain the woman-gatherer models (task, value) and its implications (2)

A

Woman gatherer - women gather (high value), male-female pair bonded

  • implicates women were first tool users
  • gathering set framework for hunting
95
Q

What do the man-hunter and woman-gatherer models implicate about the division of labor? (2)

A

Similar tasks (different values); rigid division of labor

96
Q

If we think a task is a ____ role, it shapes our ideas about society in a different way than if we think a task is a ______ role

A

sex,gender

97
Q

Why are the Agta important in understanding gender division of labor? (3)

A

Overlapping tasks between men and women(hunting, gathering, trading)
Hunting by women (either helping or directly hunting)
Pregnancy/childcare

98
Q

What are two arguments from the “men as active caregivers” section? How is this possible? (2)

A

Relative to other apes:
- human offspring are incredibly needy (altricial)
- human females have high fertility
Higher fertility = lower interbirth interval = male help in offspring

99
Q

How does Gettler (men caregivers) challenge the biological asymmetries argument?

A

Previously, thought pregnancy was burden assigning women with gender role of child care. Gettler argues child care is burden - thus challenging notion that women are natural caregivers

100
Q

How do we engender archaeology? (Venus figures - who made them - 4 q’s)

A

Sex of figurines - female
Wearer of clothes - female
Weaver - female - needed good idea of clothes - likely wearer
Carver - need good understanding of weaving - likely weaver

ANTH331 - Sex and Gender (3 decks)

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