MT 2 lecture and Textbook Flashcards
What are the 3 types of health behaviour? define each one and give and example
- well behaviour: any activity that currently healthy people undertake to maintain/improve current good health and avoid illness
- symptom-based behaviour: any activity that ill people undertake to determine the problem and find a remedy
- sick-role behaviour: any activity people undertake to treat or adjust to a current health problem
what are health-compromising behaviours? give an example
- physical inactivity
- poor diet and nutrition
- smoking
- alcohol
- unprotected sex
- excessive sun exposure
- poor sleep habits (rip)
- infrequent handwashing
- poor oral hygiene
- not seeking medical care
- poor road safety
what are some risk factors (health habits) that are associated with poor physical health and increased mortality?
- smoking
- drinking excessive alcohol
- obesity
- physical inactivity
- eating between meals (but should consider what these people are actually eating!)
- skipping breakfast
- sleeping less or more than 7-8 hours a night
what are some dietary habits that are associated with higher mortality
- higher carbs and low fat intake
- both too much and too little carbs are bad
- excessive intake of ultra-processed foods were associated with higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease
what are the three types of prevention? explain each one
primary prevention: actions taken to avoid disease/injury, or prevent onset of illness
secondary prevention: identification and treatment of an illness/disease to stop or reverse the problem
tertiary prevention: preventative behaviours steps are taken to manage an illness–there is no cure
what are health promotion activities often aimed at? give an example
- they are often aimed at primary prevention
- e.g., providing information on how to stay healthy
what is the health belief model? explain the different parts
*the likelihood that an individual will engage in a health behaviour depends on two *assessments**
1. perceived threat
2. perceived benefits and barriers: do pros outweigh cons?
what are some criticisms of the health belief model
- doesn’t consider social factors or habits
- doesn’t have a standard way of measuring its components
Explain the cognitive adaption theory
- theory that perceptions of physiological risk could be harmful psychologically
- optimism may lead to better mental health, which may result in being better able to cope with risk
why is it important to keep a balance between optimism and fear when it comes to health behaviours?
- a good amount of optimism is correlated with better health outcomes, but too much is correlated with avoiding preventative action
- too little optimism results in the individual becoming overwhelmed by the threat
*** - a good amount of fear can be motivating, but too much will spur people away from even viewing the health knowledge things
what is the effect of too much optimism in health behaviours? name this term
unrealistic optimism
- reduced compliance with health measures, less preventative action
- they would believe that it wasn’t that serious or didn’t apply to them
what is the theory of planned behaviour? what are the 3 key factors?
health behaviour is the direct result of behavioural intentions, which are influenced by 3 key factors
1. attitude regarding the behaviour: is the behaviour good or bad?
2. subjective norms: how accepted is this behaviour in the eyes of others? can be influenced very easily
3. perceived behavioural control: expectation of success and self-efficacy
compare and contrast the theory of planned behaviour and the health belief model
- both assume that people wight perceived benefits and costs and behave accordingly
- neither accounts for habits
Theory of Planned Behaviour - includes social factors
- more focus on the individual (perceived behavioural control and subjective norms)
Health Belief Model - focuses more on the health threat itself
what is self-efficacy? what is it correlated with? how does it relate to the theory of planned behaviour?
self-efficacy: the belief that one can execute a course of action, achieve a goal
- it is correlated with actually reaching the goal
- it is a part of the factor, “Percieved behavioural Control” in the theory of planned behaviour
what is the key difference between the trans theoretical model and the theory of planned behaviour + health belief model?
- the transtheoretical model focuses on the stages that people go through before and while they seek care
- the other two models focus on the factors that are involved with seeking care
what is the trans theoretical model? what are the 5 stages? explain them
stages of change in health behaviours
1. precontemplation: no intention of change, not considering changing
2. contemplation: aware of need to change and contemplating it
3. preparation: ready to change and plans to implement change soon
4. Action start successfully making changes to behaviour
5. maintentance work to maintain new behaviour and avoid relapse
how is the trans theoretical model better for applications?
- allows clinicians to understand the readiness of change in patients
- this allows for better targeted treatment that marches the patient’s psychosocial characteristics
what is a relapse? how does it differentiate from a lapse? how might one result in the other?
relapse: fully falling back into old unhealthy habits
lapse: one-time, less severe slip into unhealthy habit
- a lapse doesn’t immediately mean that the person had failed–in fact, lapses are common along the path to recovery–but some people take the loss of self confidence from a lapse and fully relapse (abstinence-violation effect)
what are some strategies to help people advance through the stages in the trans theoretical model? give examples
- describe in detail how a person would carry out the behaviour change
- match strategies to the person’s current needs to promote advancement to the next stage
- plan fro problems that may arise when trying to implement the behaviour change
what is motivated reasoning? what heuristic is this similar to? what does it result in?
emotionally-biased reasoning intended to produce justifications or make decisions that are most desired, rather than reflect the evidence
- confirmation bias is similar
- results in the maintenance of unhealthy behaviour and resisting of the adoption of healthy ones
what is conflict theory? how do different people interact with this theory?
- when people are faced with health-related decisions, they experience stress due to uncertainty of conflict about what to do
- people might deal with this conflict differently depending on their evaluations:
1. risk
2. hope of overcoming conflict
3. adequate time to find solution
what is the least favourable situation for a health-related decision, in respect to conflict theory?
- risk is high
- hope remains
- adequate time is low
which emotional factors are most effective for changing behaviour?
SAND
- status
- affiliation
- nurture
- disgust
how does empathy affect health behaviours? give examples
increased emphatic responding correlated with increased adherence to recommended health precautions
- nurses were more likely to engage in handwashing when presented with signs that reminded them of their patients
- people were more responsive to public health messages that reminded them of the community
what is the difference between how public health emphasized perceived threat in the past compared to present
in the past, public health emphasized percieved threat to the individual, but nowadays, public health emphasizes perceived threat to the community
what traits are correlated with lower empathy? how does this affect health behaviours?
- people of both traits are less likely to follow health precautions
1. narcissism (preoccupation and over-inflation of self, grandiosity)
2. anti-social behaviour (socially disruptive behaviours that violate the rights of others)
what are current trends in vaccine hesitancy? what has this resulted in? why is it important?
- recently, there has been a rise of negative attitudes about vaccines, ranging from vaccine hesitancy to anti-vaxx
- less people are getting vaccinated
- increasing frequency of outbreaks and viruses
why are subjective norms important with respect to health behaviours? give an example
- they can reinforce attitudes that aren’t supported by research
- e.g., when celebrities start advocating for anti-vaxx or gluten sensitivity
what are some factors that predict vaccine hesitancy and anti-vaxx attitudes? what are some common themes?
- mistrust in the medical community and health professionals
- perceived dangers of vaccines
- disgust toward blood and needles
- preferring alternative medicine
- religiousness, where spirituality is knowledge
- conspiratorial thinking and paranoia
- low agreeableness or conscientiousness
- individualism and narcissism, authoritarianism, low empathy and altruism
- reactance
*** - perception and trust are common themes
how might learning about health disparities affect support for health precautions? how does relate to empathy? and the importance of the audience of public health messages?
- people who are not in a marginalized community are less likely to engage in health behaviours when they learn about health disparities
- this is due to reduced fear and reduced empathy
- important because then we have to be careful about who we tell these statistics to
explain the dunning-kruger effect. How might this play into anti-vaccine attitudes?
- cognitive bias
- people are most confident in their opinions and knowledge when they know very little information about a topic
- it’s easier to oversimplify facts and try to figure it out yourself
- might play into anti-vaccine attitudes since people would be inclined to believe confident people, and less-informed people may be more relatable than a health professional
what is a solution to vaccine hesitancy? why?
- focus on information on disease threat
- this works best to change attitudes about vaccines, rather than information debunking vaccination myths
what is the backfire effect? how might it affect vaccine hesitancy?
- cognitive bias
- causes people to strengthen their original stance after learning contradicting information
what is the relationship between the backfire effect and the confirmation bias?
the backfire effect is a type of confirmation bias
what is an educational appeal? what assumption does it rely on? What does it not consider? what are some factors it should consider for success?
- general information is provided, instead of tailored content
- relies on the assumption that people will be motivated to improve a health behaviour if they have the correct information
- doesn’t consider the audience, limitations of certain social groups, etc.
factors that should be considered - colour and vividness of ad
- expertise, likeability, and reliability of actors
- avoidance of jargon and stats
- length of message
- placement of strong arguments
- presentation of both sides of the story
clarity of conclusions - avoidance of extremes
what is message framing? name and give examples for the 2 types
whether the information emphasizes the benefits or costs associated with a behaviour or decision
- gain-framed messages: focused on gaining desirable consequences and/or avoiding negative ones
- e.g., if you exercise, you will become ripped and less likely to develop heart disease
- loss-framed messages: focused on experiencing undesirable consequences and/or avoiding positive ones
- e.g., if you don’t get your blood pressure checked, you could increase your chances of having a heart attack or stroke, and you won’t know the health of your blood pressure
what behaviours would gain-framed or loss-framed messages be best for motivating
- gain-framed messages: best for motivating behaviours that serve to prevent or recover from illness or injury
- loss-framed messages: best for behaviours that occur infrequently, is uncertain, and serve to detect a health problem early
what are fear appeals? what are its results and what can affect them?
- loss-framed messages that assumes that instilling fear in the audience will lead to change
- its results are short-lived
message framing is more persuasive if:
- emphasize consequences
- include persona testimonial
- provide specific instructions
- boost self-efficacy before urging them to change
explain cognitive behavioural therapy. what protocols does it use? what is the ultimate outcome?
- promotes self-observation and self-monitoring to increase awareness and control of negative thoughts and harmful behaviours
- uses protocols where the therapist tries to get the patient more aware of their behaviours, so it becomes habitual
- the ultimate outcomes is self-management, where the clients can apply CBT methods themselves without the supervision or guidance of the clinician
compare and contrast behavioural and cognitive methods
both are aimed at correcting maladaptive habits
behavioural: focused on the behaviour by manage the antecedents and consequences
cognitive: focused on changing thought patterns
what Is the abstinence-violation effect?
experiencing a lapse can destroy one’s confidence in sticking to the health behaviour, resulting in a full relapse
what is motivational interviewing? what is its approach and 2 key features?
*one-on-one counselling style designed to help individuals explore and resolve their uncertainty in changing a behaviour
- uses a semi-directive, client-centred therapeutic approach (it’s more open ended)
two key features
1. decisional balance (clients list reasons for/against changing the behaviour for discussion)
2. personalized feedback
what models and methods does motivational interviewing follow? explain how it relates to said models and methods
- it follows the transtheoretical model
- it’s most effective when the patient is in the precontemplation or contemplation phase, since motivational interviewing is designed to resolve that uncertainty
- “decisional balance” also seems to be a way to gauge where the patient is in the model - uses that in combination with CBT
- personalized feedback seems to fall inline with CBT, since clients become aware of their behaviour
when is motivational interviewing most effective? why?
during the precontemplation or contemplation phase, since motivational interviewing is designed to resolve that uncertainty
what are some strategies to help with problem-drinking?
- slowing down
- spacing drinks
- having different types of drinks
- drinking for quality instead of quantity
- enjoy the mild effects of alcohol
what is social engineering? give some examples
changing the social environment to better support healthy behaviours
- seatbelt laws
- age restrictions on alcohol purchasing
- nutritional guidelines
- road safety
- school vaccination programs
- smoking prohibitions
- taxation of alcohol to increase cost
- restricting alcohol to adults
- taxes on sugary drinks
- eliminating trans fats in foods in some schools
- vaccine mandate/passports
compare and contrast criminalization, decriminalization and the harm reduction approach
- criminalization: regulate, prohibit, and/or crimalize addictive or harmful substances
- decriminalization: less severe penalities for possessing or using drugs
- harm reduction: aims to reduce the negative consequences of substance/drug use, and to treat people who use drugs with respect and dignity to reduce social stigma
what services are provided at the insite supervised drug consumption site and what is its goal? what are the results?
- allows for safe consumption of intravenous drugs
- provides clean needles and drug supplies to use
- provides information to help people quit drugs
goal: reduce overdoses in places without health services
results - reductions in public injecting and syringe sharing
- increases in use of detox services and addiction treatment
- significant drop in overdose deaths and new cases of HIV infection
why are some countries moving towards decriminalization/harm reduction?
to reduce barriers and sigma, soo people don’t avoid health services
what is the BC safer supply policy? what are the results? why?
- allows people with opioid use disorder at high risk of overdosing to receive pharmaceutical-grade opioids
- there have been increased hospitalizations, but overdoses have not
what is an addiction?
condition caused by the repeated consumption of a natural or synthetic psychoactive substance where a person becomes physically and psychologically dependent on said substance
compare and contrast the two types of dependence
physiological dependence:
- body adapts the substance into normal functioning
- happens with any drugs, even ones prescribed for medical purposes
- when someone isn’t physically dependent, they typically experience less tolerance and withdrawal
psychologcial dependence
- individual feels compelled to use a substance for the effect it produces
- can happen withou necessarily being physically dependent on it
- doesn’t always occur
- typically happens before physiological dependence
what might the issues of calling an addiction a disease?
- makes it seem as if it is completely a biological disorder
- strips the user of personal responsibility
- transfers the responsibilities to doctors and caregivers
- imposes a disease sigma
what sets caffeine away from other substances?
- it is the only one that isnt’ recognized as having have a use disorder
list 2 recognized behavioural addictions
- gambling disorder
- internet gaming disorder
what are the short-term and long-term effects of alcohol?
short term
- reduced coordination
- diminished cognitive ability
- judgment, decision-making
- aggression, emotionality
- accidents
long-term
- liver damage
- cardiovascular disease
- various types of cancer
- depression
- alcohol use disorder
what are 3 types of interventions that have been shown to help with alcohol use disorder? which one would you choose, and why?
12-step programs and Alcoholics Anonymous
- Inconsistent experimental evidence of effectiveness across studies
- inconsistent experimental evidence of effectiveness across studies
- depends on the individual group and group dynamics
Motivational interviewing
- consistent and significant effects in a large majority of studies
- outperforms traditional counselling!
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
- small but statistically significant treatment effect across controlled studies
when should drinkers engage in abstinence, and when should they engage in moderation for a better chance of succeeding in stopping drinking? why?
less severe the drinking problem, better the chances of succeeding in controlled drinking
- young, socially stable, with a short history of alcohol abuse, has not experienced severe withdrawal, have the best prospects for controlled drinking
- long-term alcohol abusers shouldn’t just control drinking
heavy drinkers are likely low in self control, and alcohol inhibits it further
what are the two types of high risk situations for relapse? give examples for both. what are the similarities between the two situations?
intrapersonal high risk situations
- within the individual
- negative emotional state
- positive emotional state
- exposure to alcohol-related stimuli or cues
- non-specific cravings
interpersonal high risk situations
- between individuals
- situations involving other people, especially interpersonal conflict
- social pressure, both direct and indirect
- exposure to settings and situations hat are cues
what are the proposed health benefits of light/moderate alcohol intake? what is an external variable that might’ve affected this result?
- reduced risk of coronary heart disease
- have to consider that many of those who abstain from alcohol do so because of other health reasons
what does it mean to be obese?
when BMI > 30
what is the BMI? what does it assess?
kg/m^2
- adult weight in relation to their height
- assesses population health
what is the systems approach to obesity? explain the different interactions and give examples
biology, behaviour, and environment interact to cause obesity
- obesity is heritable, but it is driven largely by environmental and lifestyle factors
- e.g., stressful lifestyle, high energy/fat foods, convenience foods, fast food, high energy intake, low energy expenditure, watching TV, “supersized” portions, food packaging
what is healthwashing?
marketing/packaging something in a way that makes them seem healthier than they actually are
what component of diet is most predictive of poor health and obesity? why?
- added/processed sugar
- increases inflammation
- increased risk of cancer
- weight gain
- cardiovascular disease
how might low-carb diets affect your health? what is a better alternative?
- lowers levels of serotonin and long term results in poor health possibly due to a lack of healthy grain
- better alternative is just to have a well-balanced diet with good nutrients
what is the health halo effect? how might this apply to entire menus and why?
*the tendency to judge an entire food item as healthier based on 1+ narrow attributes that are perceived as healthy
- “low-calorie”
- “organic”
- “all-nautral”
- comes from an environment that is perceived as healthier (e.g., subway)
- it can apply to whole menus since individuals were more likely to make indulgent food choices when a healthy item is available, compared to when it is not
how is gluten sensitivity an example of a one-study problem? explain the whole issue
- there was one study showing that gluten sensitivity was a thing
- the researcher later couldn’t replicate the effect but the public took it and ran
what’s the “healthy at every size” approach? what is it an alternative to? give an example of it in practice
an alternative to the weight-centred/weight control approach that instead focuses on weight-neutral outcomes
- instead focuses more on health behaviours
- e.g., a win is the person heading to the gym or drinking enough water in the day
how does weight stigma affect health?
- factor in weight gain and poor health
- predicts mortality
poorer treatment and inadequate care for patients with obesity - internalization of weight biases has been shown to interfere with weight management interventions
what is a sedentary behaviour? how does it differ from regular low physical activity?
any activity involving sitting, reclining, or lying down that has a very low energy expenditure
- low physical activity will include actions that we wouldn’t classify as active (i.e., standing), but still require a little more energy
how much exercise should an adult get every week? how might someone go about effectively putting this into their life?
2.5 hours of moderate-vigorous physical activity
- if someone joins an exercise program, they are more likely to stick to the routine and engage in the behaviour
how does negative affect play into health and health-seeking behaviours?
- it can have a direct effect on symptomatology
- also motivates people to seek care
what is the sick role? how does it play into the illness and care context?
- sick role are the “rights” that a person that is sick obtains
- e.g., take sick days from work, being excused from physically strenuous tasks
what is secondary gains? give an example of how someone would use this. what role would it involve?
- benefits that someone obtains from being sick (sick role)
- it affects how people use the healthcare system
- someone might use this to get out of undesirable tasks (e.g., going to school)
What are the 3 stages in treatment delay? how might the health belief model play a role?
appraisal: someone experiences symptoms, but doesn’t percieve it as being a threat
illness: person beliefs that they have an illness, but doesn’t actually seek care
utilization: the period between someone seeking help and actually receiving that help
what are some factors that play into percieving symptoms?
- individual differences of attention to internal state
- environmental and social factors
- psychological factors
- prior experiences and expectations
how might people who are highly aware of their internal state use health services?
- these people are more aware and sensitive to their bodily sensations
- might not be more accurate, since they might exaggerate or overestimate symptoms
what is a commonsense models? give an example
- the different ideas that people have about different diseases
- affects the way influences are interpreted
- kinda like one’s schemas about a certain disease
examples - illness identity
- causes/underlying pathology
- timeline or prognosis
- consequences (seriousness, effects, outcome)
Billy bob has no diagnosis for his occasional headaches, but he’s extremely anxious about it. What might he be called? what effects might their actions have on the broader system?
- The worried well
- people who are unnecessarily anxious about their health, even without a related diagnosis
- might end up misusing the health system, resulting in additional healthcare burden
