MT 2 lecture and Textbook Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 3 types of health behaviour? define each one and give and example
A
- well behaviour: any activity that currently healthy people undertake to maintain/improve current good health and avoid illness
- symptom-based behaviour: any activity that ill people undertake to determine the problem and find a remedy
- sick-role behaviour: any activity people undertake to treat or adjust to a current health problem
2
Q
what are health-compromising behaviours? give an example
A
- physical inactivity
- poor diet and nutrition
- smoking
- alcohol
- unprotected sex
- excessive sun exposure
- poor sleep habits (rip)
- infrequent handwashing
- poor oral hygiene
- not seeking medical care
- poor road safety
3
Q
what are some risk factors (health habits) that are associated with poor physical health and increased mortality?
A
- smoking
- drinking excessive alcohol
- obesity
- physical inactivity
- eating between meals (but should consider what these people are actually eating!)
- skipping breakfast
- sleeping less or more than 7-8 hours a night
4
Q
what are some dietary habits that are associated with higher mortality
A
- higher carbs and low fat intake
- both too much and too little carbs are bad
- excessive intake of ultra-processed foods were associated with higher risk of inflammatory bowel disease
5
Q
what are the three types of prevention? explain each one
A
primary prevention: actions taken to avoid disease/injury, or prevent onset of illness
secondary prevention: identification and treatment of an illness/disease to stop or reverse the problem
tertiary prevention: preventative behaviours steps are taken to manage an illness–there is no cure
6
Q
what are health promotion activities often aimed at? give an example
A
- they are often aimed at primary prevention
- e.g., providing information on how to stay healthy
7
Q
what is the health belief model? explain the different parts
A
*the likelihood that an individual will engage in a health behaviour depends on two *assessments**
1. perceived threat
2. perceived benefits and barriers: do pros outweigh cons?
8
Q
what are some criticisms of the health belief model
A
- doesn’t consider social factors or habits
- doesn’t have a standard way of measuring its components
9
Q
Explain the cognitive adaption theory
A
- theory that perceptions of physiological risk could be harmful psychologically
- optimism may lead to better mental health, which may result in being better able to cope with risk
10
Q
why is it important to keep a balance between optimism and fear when it comes to health behaviours?
A
- a good amount of optimism is correlated with better health outcomes, but too much is correlated with avoiding preventative action
- too little optimism results in the individual becoming overwhelmed by the threat
*** - a good amount of fear can be motivating, but too much will spur people away from even viewing the health knowledge things
11
Q
what is the effect of too much optimism in health behaviours? name this term
A
unrealistic optimism
- reduced compliance with health measures, less preventative action
- they would believe that it wasn’t that serious or didn’t apply to them
12
Q
what is the theory of planned behaviour? what are the 3 key factors?
A
health behaviour is the direct result of behavioural intentions, which are influenced by 3 key factors
1. attitude regarding the behaviour: is the behaviour good or bad?
2. subjective norms: how accepted is this behaviour in the eyes of others? can be influenced very easily
3. perceived behavioural control: expectation of success and self-efficacy
13
Q
compare and contrast the theory of planned behaviour and the health belief model
A
- both assume that people wight perceived benefits and costs and behave accordingly
- neither accounts for habits
Theory of Planned Behaviour - includes social factors
- more focus on the individual (perceived behavioural control and subjective norms)
Health Belief Model - focuses more on the health threat itself
14
Q
what is self-efficacy? what is it correlated with? how does it relate to the theory of planned behaviour?
A
self-efficacy: the belief that one can execute a course of action, achieve a goal
- it is correlated with actually reaching the goal
- it is a part of the factor, “Percieved behavioural Control” in the theory of planned behaviour
15
Q
what is the key difference between the trans theoretical model and the theory of planned behaviour + health belief model?
A
- the transtheoretical model focuses on the stages that people go through before and while they seek care
- the other two models focus on the factors that are involved with seeking care
16
Q
what is the trans theoretical model? what are the 5 stages? explain them
A
stages of change in health behaviours
1. precontemplation: no intention of change, not considering changing
2. contemplation: aware of need to change and contemplating it
3. preparation: ready to change and plans to implement change soon
4. Action start successfully making changes to behaviour
5. maintentance work to maintain new behaviour and avoid relapse
17
Q
how is the trans theoretical model better for applications?
A
- allows clinicians to understand the readiness of change in patients
- this allows for better targeted treatment that marches the patient’s psychosocial characteristics
18
Q
what is a relapse? how does it differentiate from a lapse? how might one result in the other?
A
relapse: fully falling back into old unhealthy habits
lapse: one-time, less severe slip into unhealthy habit
- a lapse doesn’t immediately mean that the person had failed–in fact, lapses are common along the path to recovery–but some people take the loss of self confidence from a lapse and fully relapse (abstinence-violation effect)
19
Q
what are some strategies to help people advance through the stages in the trans theoretical model? give examples
A
- describe in detail how a person would carry out the behaviour change
- match strategies to the person’s current needs to promote advancement to the next stage
- plan fro problems that may arise when trying to implement the behaviour change
20
Q
what is motivated reasoning? what heuristic is this similar to? what does it result in?
A
emotionally-biased reasoning intended to produce justifications or make decisions that are most desired, rather than reflect the evidence
- confirmation bias is similar
- results in the maintenance of unhealthy behaviour and resisting of the adoption of healthy ones
21
Q
what is conflict theory? how do different people interact with this theory?
A
- when people are faced with health-related decisions, they experience stress due to uncertainty of conflict about what to do
- people might deal with this conflict differently depending on their evaluations:
1. risk
2. hope of overcoming conflict
3. adequate time to find solution
22
Q
what is the least favourable situation for a health-related decision, in respect to conflict theory?
A
- risk is high
- hope remains
- adequate time is low
23
Q
which emotional factors are most effective for changing behaviour?
A
SAND
- status
- affiliation
- nurture
- disgust
24
Q
how does empathy affect health behaviours? give examples
A
increased emphatic responding correlated with increased adherence to recommended health precautions
- nurses were more likely to engage in handwashing when presented with signs that reminded them of their patients
- people were more responsive to public health messages that reminded them of the community
25
what is the difference between how public health emphasized perceived threat in the past compared to present
in the past, public health emphasized percieved threat to the individual, but nowadays, public health emphasizes perceived threat to the community
26
what traits are correlated with lower empathy? how does this affect health behaviours?
- people of both traits are less likely to follow health precautions
1. narcissism (preoccupation and over-inflation of self, grandiosity)
2. anti-social behaviour (socially disruptive behaviours that violate the rights of others)
27
what are current trends in vaccine hesitancy? what has this resulted in? why is it important?
- recently, there has been a rise of negative attitudes about vaccines, ranging from vaccine hesitancy to anti-vaxx
- less people are getting vaccinated
- increasing frequency of outbreaks and viruses
28
why are subjective norms important with respect to health behaviours? give an example
- they can reinforce attitudes that aren't supported by research
- e.g., when celebrities start advocating for anti-vaxx or gluten sensitivity
29
what are some factors that predict vaccine hesitancy and anti-vaxx attitudes? what are some common themes?
- mistrust in the medical community and health professionals
- perceived dangers of vaccines
- disgust toward blood and needles
- preferring alternative medicine
- religiousness, where spirituality is knowledge
- conspiratorial thinking and paranoia
- low agreeableness or conscientiousness
- individualism and narcissism, authoritarianism, low empathy and altruism
- reactance
***
- perception and trust are common themes
30
how might learning about health disparities affect support for health precautions? how does relate to empathy? and the importance of the audience of public health messages?
- people who are not in a marginalized community are less likely to engage in health behaviours when they learn about health disparities
- this is due to reduced fear and reduced empathy
- important because then we have to be careful about who we tell these statistics to
31
explain the dunning-kruger effect. How might this play into anti-vaccine attitudes?
- cognitive bias
- people are most confident in their opinions and knowledge when they know very little information about a topic
- it's easier to oversimplify facts and try to figure it out yourself
- might play into anti-vaccine attitudes since people would be inclined to believe confident people, and less-informed people may be more relatable than a health professional
32
what is a solution to vaccine hesitancy? why?
- focus on information on *disease threat*
- this works best to change *attitudes* about vaccines, rather than information debunking vaccination myths
33
what is the backfire effect? how might it affect vaccine hesitancy?
- cognitive bias
- causes people to strengthen their original stance after learning contradicting information
34
what is the relationship between the backfire effect and the confirmation bias?
the backfire effect is a type of confirmation bias
35
what is an educational appeal? what assumption does it rely on? What does it not consider? what are some factors it should consider for success?
- *general information* is provided, instead of tailored content
- relies on the assumption that people will be motivated to improve a health behaviour if they have the correct information
- doesn't consider the audience, limitations of certain social groups, etc.
**factors that should be considered**
- colour and vividness of ad
- expertise, likeability, and reliability of actors
- avoidance of jargon and stats
- length of message
- placement of strong arguments
- presentation of both sides of the story
clarity of conclusions
- avoidance of extremes
36
what is message framing? name and give examples for the 2 types
*whether the information emphasizes the benefits or costs associated with a behaviour or decision*
- **gain-framed messages**: focused on gaining desirable consequences and/or avoiding negative ones
- e.g., if you exercise, you will become ripped and less likely to develop heart disease
- **loss-framed messages**: focused on experiencing undesirable consequences and/or avoiding positive ones
- e.g., if you don't get your blood pressure checked, you could increase your chances of having a heart attack or stroke, and you won't know the health of your blood pressure
37
what behaviours would gain-framed or loss-framed messages be best for motivating
- gain-framed messages: best for motivating behaviours that serve to *prevent or recover* from illness or injury
- loss-framed messages: best for behaviours that occur infrequently, is uncertain, and serve to detect a health problem early
38
what are fear appeals? what are its results and what can affect them?
- loss-framed messages that assumes that instilling fear in the audience will lead to change
- its results are short-lived
**message framing is more persuasive if:**
- emphasize consequences
- include persona testimonial
- provide specific instructions
- boost self-efficacy before urging them to change
39
explain cognitive behavioural therapy. what protocols does it use? what is the ultimate outcome?
- promotes *self-observation* and *self-monitoring* to increase awareness and control of negative thoughts and harmful behaviours
- uses protocols where the therapist tries to get the patient more aware of their behaviours, so it becomes habitual
- the ultimate outcomes is **self-management**, where the clients can apply CBT methods themselves without the supervision or guidance of the clinician
40
compare and contrast behavioural and cognitive methods
both are aimed at correcting maladaptive habits
behavioural: focused on the behaviour by manage the antecedents and consequences
cognitive: focused on changing thought patterns
41
what Is the abstinence-violation effect?
experiencing a lapse can destroy one's confidence in sticking to the health behaviour, resulting in a full relapse
42
what is motivational interviewing? what is its approach and 2 key features?
*one-on-one counselling style designed to help individuals explore and resolve their uncertainty in changing a behaviour
- uses a semi-directive, client-centred therapeutic approach (it's more open ended)
**two key features**
1. decisional balance (clients list reasons for/against changing the behaviour for discussion)
2. personalized feedback
43
what models and methods does motivational interviewing follow? explain how it relates to said models and methods
- it follows the **transtheoretical model**
- it's most effective when the patient is in the precontemplation or contemplation phase, since motivational interviewing is designed to resolve that uncertainty
- "decisional balance" also seems to be a way to gauge where the patient is in the model
- uses that in combination with **CBT**
- personalized feedback seems to fall inline with CBT, since clients become aware of their behaviour
44
when is motivational interviewing most effective? why?
during the precontemplation or contemplation phase, since motivational interviewing is designed to resolve that uncertainty
45
what are some strategies to help with problem-drinking?
- slowing down
- spacing drinks
- having different types of drinks
- drinking for quality instead of quantity
- enjoy the mild effects of alcohol
46
what is social engineering? give some examples
**changing the social environment to better support healthy behaviours**
- seatbelt laws
- age restrictions on alcohol purchasing
- nutritional guidelines
- road safety
- school vaccination programs
- smoking prohibitions
- taxation of alcohol to increase cost
- restricting alcohol to adults
- taxes on sugary drinks
- eliminating trans fats in foods in some schools
- vaccine mandate/passports
47
compare and contrast criminalization, decriminalization and the harm reduction approach
- **criminalization**: regulate, prohibit, and/or crimalize addictive or harmful substances
- **decriminalization**: less severe penalities for possessing or using drugs
- **harm reduction**: aims to reduce the negative consequences of substance/drug use, and to treat people who use drugs with respect and dignity to reduce social stigma
48
what services are provided at the insite supervised drug consumption site and what is its goal? what are the results?
- allows for safe consumption of intravenous drugs
- provides clean needles and drug supplies to use
- provides information to help people quit drugs
**goal**: reduce *overdoses* in places without health services
**results**
- reductions in public injecting and syringe sharing
- increases in use of detox services and addiction treatment
- significant drop in overdose deaths and new cases of HIV infection
49
why are some countries moving towards decriminalization/harm reduction?
to reduce barriers and sigma, soo people don't avoid health services
50
what is the BC safer supply policy? what are the results? why?
- allows people with opioid use disorder at high risk of overdosing to receive pharmaceutical-grade opioids
- there have been increased hospitalizations, but overdoses have not
51
what is an addiction?
condition caused by the repeated consumption of a natural or synthetic psychoactive substance where a person becomes physically and psychologically dependent on said substance
52
compare and contrast the two types of dependence
**physiological dependence**:
- body adapts the substance into normal functioning
- happens with any drugs, even ones prescribed for medical purposes
- when someone isn't physically dependent, they typically experience less tolerance and withdrawal
**psychologcial dependence**
- individual feels compelled to use a substance for the effect it produces
- can happen withou necessarily being physically dependent on it
- doesn't always occur
- typically happens before physiological dependence
53
what might the issues of calling an addiction a disease?
- makes it seem as if it is completely a biological disorder
- strips the user of personal responsibility
- transfers the responsibilities to doctors and caregivers
- imposes a disease sigma
54
what sets caffeine away from other substances?
- it is the only one that isnt' recognized as having have a use disorder
55
list 2 recognized behavioural addictions
- gambling disorder
- internet gaming disorder
56
what are the short-term and long-term effects of alcohol?
**short term**
- reduced coordination
- diminished cognitive ability
- judgment, decision-making
- aggression, emotionality
- accidents
**long-term**
- liver damage
- cardiovascular disease
- various types of cancer
- depression
- alcohol use disorder
57
what are 3 types of interventions that have been shown to help with alcohol use disorder? which one would you choose, and why?
**12-step programs and Alcoholics Anonymous**
- Inconsistent experimental evidence of effectiveness across studies
- inconsistent experimental evidence of effectiveness across studies
- depends on the individual group and group dynamics
**Motivational interviewing**
- consistent and significant effects in a large majority of studies
- outperforms traditional counselling!
**Cognitive Behavioural Therapy**
- small but statistically significant treatment effect across controlled studies
58
when should drinkers engage in abstinence, and when should they engage in moderation for a better chance of succeeding in stopping drinking? why?
*less severe the drinking problem, better the chances of succeeding in controlled drinking*
- young, socially stable, with a short history of alcohol abuse, has not experienced severe withdrawal, have the best prospects for controlled drinking
- long-term alcohol abusers shouldn't just control drinking
heavy drinkers are likely low in self control, and alcohol inhibits it further
59
what are the two types of high risk situations for relapse? give examples for both. what are the similarities between the two situations?
**intrapersonal high risk situations**
- *within* the individual
- negative emotional state
- positive emotional state
- exposure to alcohol-related stimuli or cues
- non-specific cravings
**interpersonal high risk situations**
- *between* individuals
- situations involving other people, especially interpersonal conflict
- social pressure, both direct and indirect
- exposure to settings and situations hat are cues
60
what are the proposed health benefits of light/moderate alcohol intake? what is an external variable that might've affected this result?
- reduced risk of coronary heart disease
- have to consider that many of those who abstain from alcohol do so because of other health reasons
61
what does it mean to be obese?
when BMI > 30
62
what is the BMI? what does it assess?
kg/m^2
- adult weight in relation to their height
- assesses population health
63
what is the systems approach to obesity? explain the different interactions and give examples
biology, behaviour, and environment interact to cause obesity
- obesity is heritable, but it is driven largely by environmental and lifestyle factors
- e.g., stressful lifestyle, high energy/fat foods, convenience foods, fast food, high energy intake, low energy expenditure, watching TV, "supersized" portions, food packaging
64
what is healthwashing?
marketing/packaging something in a way that makes them seem healthier than they actually are
65
what component of diet is most predictive of poor health and obesity? why?
- added/processed sugar
- increases inflammation
- increased risk of cancer
- weight gain
- cardiovascular disease
66
how might low-carb diets affect your health? what is a better alternative?
- lowers levels of serotonin and long term results in poor health possibly due to a lack of healthy grain
- better alternative is just to have a well-balanced diet with good nutrients
67
what is the health halo effect? how might this apply to entire menus and why?
*the tendency to judge an **entire** food item as healthier based on 1+ narrow attributes that are perceived as healthy
- "low-calorie"
- "organic"
- "all-nautral"
- comes from an environment that is perceived as healthier (e.g., subway)
- it can apply to whole menus since individuals were more likely to make indulgent food choices when a healthy item is available, compared to when it is not
68
how is gluten sensitivity an example of a one-study problem? explain the whole issue
- there was one study showing that gluten sensitivity was a thing
- the researcher later couldn't replicate the effect but the public took it and ran
69
what's the "healthy at every size" approach? what is it an alternative to? give an example of it in practice
*an alternative to the weight-centred/weight control approach that instead focuses on weight-neutral outcomes*
- instead focuses more on health behaviours
- e.g., a win is the person heading to the gym or drinking enough water in the day
70
how does weight stigma affect health?
- factor in weight gain and poor health
- predicts mortality
poorer treatment and inadequate care for patients with obesity
- internalization of weight biases has been shown to interfere with weight management interventions
71
what is a sedentary behaviour? how does it differ from regular low physical activity?
*any activity involving sitting, reclining, or lying down that has a very low energy expenditure*
- low physical activity will include actions that we wouldn't classify as active (i.e., standing), but still require a little more energy
72
how much exercise should an adult get every week? how might someone go about effectively putting this into their life?
2.5 hours of moderate-vigorous physical activity
- if someone joins an exercise program, they are more likely to stick to the routine and engage in the behaviour
73
how does negative affect play into health and health-seeking behaviours?
- it can have a direct effect on symptomatology
- also motivates people to seek care
74
what is the sick role? how does it play into the illness and care context?
- sick role are the "rights" that a person that is sick obtains
- e.g., take sick days from work, being excused from physically strenuous tasks
75
what is secondary gains? give an example of how someone would use this. what role would it involve?
- benefits that someone obtains from being sick (sick role)
- it affects how people use the healthcare system
- someone might use this to get out of undesirable tasks (e.g., going to school)
76
What are the 3 stages in treatment delay? how might the health belief model play a role?
**appraisal**: someone experiences symptoms, but doesn't percieve it as being a threat
**illness**: person beliefs that they have an illness, but doesn't actually seek care
**utilization**: the period between someone seeking help and actually receiving that help
77
what are some factors that play into percieving symptoms?
- individual differences of attention to internal state
- environmental and social factors
- psychological factors
- prior experiences and expectations
78
how might people who are highly aware of their internal state use health services?
- these people are more aware and sensitive to their bodily sensations
- might not be more accurate, since they might exaggerate or overestimate symptoms
79
what is a commonsense models? give an example
- the different ideas that people have about different diseases
- affects the way influences are interpreted
- kinda like one's schemas about a certain disease
**examples**
- illness identity
- causes/underlying pathology
- timeline or prognosis
- consequences (seriousness, effects, outcome)
80
Billy bob has no diagnosis for his occasional headaches, but he's extremely anxious about it. What might he be called? what effects might their actions have on the broader system?
- **The worried well**
- people who are unnecessarily anxious about their health, even without a related diagnosis
- might end up misusing the health system, resulting in additional healthcare burden
81
what is a lay referral network?
- the network of people that one goes for medical advice before actually seeking medical attention for their symptoms
82
what are the issues with using the internet for health-related information?
- misinformation is rampant
- most information on medical TV shows doesn't include actual good recommendations
- echo-chambers are rampant
83
what are some issues with accessing health services in Canada? who are most greatly impacted by these issues?
- fuckass long wait times
**most greatly impacted:**
- women
- LGBTQIA people
- indigenous people
- immigrants
- low-income Canadians
- those with poor/fair health
84
why might gender be an issue with accessing/using health services?
- women and gender-nonconforming people report more difficulties accessing and using health services
**why??**
- women/people with uterus use health services more frequently, while men tend to not seek out help
- lack of physician-training on reproductive and gender-related health care
- women and nongender conforming people often report not feeling respected by doctors and nurses
- less likely to be treated adequately by doctors
85
what is misgendering? what does it result in?
- when someone is addressed or described using language that doesn't match their gender identity
- can result in negatively affecting the mental health of trans and nonbinary individuals
- limit future engagement with the health care system
**associated with**
- more negative emotion
- less identity strength/coherence
- higher felt sigma
86
how might socioeconomic status affect use of health services?
- people low in SES use health services less, but when they ARE able to use them, they use them more!
- this means that those who need the health services aren't able to use it
- low-income Canadians tend to have longer wait times in hospitals than their high-income counterparts
- immigrants also have longer wait times than non- immigrants
87
how are indigenous peoples barred from accessing/adequately using health services?
*language and culture are key barriers*
- transportation barriers due to remote location of indigenous communities
- practitioners are poorly educated on the social and economic determinants in indigenous peoples' health
- inadequate end-of-life services that align with their culture
- racism, discrimination, stigma
88
how might social stigma interfere with the use of health services? how might this arise? explain with respect to the HIV/AIDS issue
- prevent them from getting or seeking proper care
- prevents them from even testing for a certain disease, for fear of the stigma
***
- might arise due to belonging to a stigmatized group
- being diagnosed with a stigmatized disease or disorder
- just being sick
***
, such as how HIV/AIDS is associated with gay men and intravenous drug use
89
what are some things a patient can do that would be problematic/impede communication in a health setting?
- wait too long to see a doctor
- be a passive consumer and not listen
- insist unnecessary procedures
- express too much concern
- inaccurately describe symptoms
- omit/falsify information
- fail to follow recommendations
90
what are some things that a practioner can do that may be problematic/impede communication? name the key term relating to this
- depersonalize the patient
- overuse medical jargon
- use baby talk, elderspeak, overly simplistic explanations
- display negative stereotypes
**doctor-centred communication/care?**
- not listen/ignore the patient
- focus on only the first problem mentioned
- ask only yes/no questions
91
what is the gold standard for a patient-practioner interaction? how does this compare to the problematic methods a practitioner could use?
**patient-centred communication**
- care providers try to see the problem as the patient does, using *empathy*
- this allows the patient so talk openly
***
- in comparison to doctor-centred communication/care, where the patient isn't really considered in the process
92
what are 2 negative associations with empathy in a healthcare setting? compare and contrast them
**burn-out**
- condition that results from chronic work strain
- emotional exhaustion, which overlaps with compassion fatigue
- depersonalization, resulting in bitter and callous attitude toward patients
- low sense of personal accomplishment
**compassion fatigue**
- emotional exhaustion due to frequent/difficult patients
- lost ability to engage in empathetic and emotional response
- results in cold and detached treatment
***
- both include emotional exhaustion
- depersonalization is similar to points 2 and 3 for compassion fatigue
- low sense of personal accomplishment seems to only be involved with burn-out
93
is empathy negative or positive in a healthcare setting? provide an argument for both sides
**negative:**
- is associated with burnout and compassion fatigue
- too much empathy might contribute to burnout
**positive:**
- empathy might make work more *meaningful*
- burnout might be the cause of the decline in empathy, not the other way around
94
what is clinical empathy?
- understanding the patient's perspective as a separate individual and communicating this to them
95
what is patient adherence/compliance? how can this be enhanced?
- it is the degree to which the patient follows medical advice/instructions
**enhance it by making it SIMPLE**
- Simply regimen
- Impart knowledge
- Modify patient beliefs
- Patient communication
- Leave the bias
- Evaluate adherence
96
what is rational nonadherence?
- when patients decide to not adhere to recommendations for a certain reason (e.g., medication includes an undesirable side effect)
97
how might hospitalization affect a person's sick-role experience?
- limits privacy
- restricts the individual's activity
- requires a high degree of dependency on others
- involves a variety of stressful events/experiences
98
what are some coping mechanisms deployed in a hospital? explain each one and under what circumstances it might arise.
**problem-focused coping**
- more common when patients believe they have more control and can do something about the problem
**emotion-related coping**
- more common when patients perceive having no control
**blaming**
**helplessness**
**rumination**
**catastrophizing**
99
how might control play a part in coping in the hospital?
**belief of control**
- problem-focused copng
**feelings of low/no control**
- emotion-focused coping
- helplessness
100
what is catastrophizing? what might it result in?
- makes the condition seem worse than it actually is
- has a direct impact on symptomology
101
what are the most effective approaches to preparing patients for procedures? define each one and give an example
*enhance 1 or more of the following types of control*
**behavioural control**
- give the participant an active role
- allowing them to reduce discomfort or promote recovery during/after the medical procedure by performing certain actions
**cognitive control**
- preparing to undergo a medical procedure knowing that it'll be unpleasant
- knowing how to direct focus on the benefits, rather than the unpleasantness, of the medical procedure
**informational control**
- gaining knowledge about events/sensations that'll happen during/after a procedure
- the amount of this varies from person to person
102
compare and contrast monitors and blunters. what is the best way to motivate them to take an active role?
**monitors**
- seeks information
- concerned and worried about issue
- less information gives them increased anxiety
- *best approach:* provide messages that include detailed info about risks and strategys
**blunters**
- overwhelmed by threatening information
- giving them information all at once is problematic, but giving a small amount multiple times is best
- *best approach:* give them only the information necessary, and keep messages succinct, non-threatening, and in simple terms
103
what are some key factors of patient satisfaction in a care setting? what might patient satisfaction result in?
- technical quality of treatment/care
- communication: quality of interaction with practitioner
- sense of autonomy and informed consent
- support and planning for leaving the hospital
*patient satisfaction results in better health outcomes*
104
what is the difference between alternative and complementary medicine? give definitions for both
- **alternative medicine**: any practice with non-scientifically based purported healing effects that is used in place of medical treatment
- **complementary medicine**: alternative medicine that is used in conjunction with conventional treatment
105
what are the different varieties of CAM? (3 main, + 3 additional) explain each one
1. manipulative and body-based methods (e.g., chiropractice care, massages)
2. natural products (using natural ingredients on body or in diet, such as vitamins)
3. mind-body interventions (such as yoga)
---
1. chinese traditional medicine (e.g., acupuncture)
2. energy fields
3. homeopathy: applying diluted substances that produce symptoms like those the ill person has
106
when can CAM be adopted into conventional health care? what are some issues that might arise?
- it can be adopted when it has enough research backing it
*however, if people use CAM when it hasn't been proven by research...*
- can have harmful side effects
- people can profit from these false claims
- conventional medicine can be replaced by use of CAM
- can falicilate the spread of misinformaiton
107
why do people use CAM?
- worry about medical treatment
- unsatisfying experience with practitioner or treatment
- less trust of medical system
- lack of perceived control
- closer relationship switch alternative practitioners
- the physical space
- tendency to view natural things as better
- religious/cultural beliefs
108
what is the placebo effect? is deception necessary? why?
- an effect that occurs from a medical procedure because of the *expectation* that an effect would occur
- deception isn't necessary: as long as the participant is told that an effect *might* happen, the placebo effect will take place
109
how does a physiological response result from a placebo effect?
results from conditioning
110
what are some characteristics that might effect the placebo effect?
- setting (how medically formal the environment seems)
- interpersonal interactions (more empathetic and compassionate healthcare providers elicit more placebo effects)
- providers faith in treatment
- the drug itself (shape, colour, size, quantity)
111
what are 5 mechanisms that might explain the placebo effect?
- time (some people improve with time)
- confirmation bias
- expectations of medication working
- pharmacological conditioning, where we associate treatments with improved symptoms
- human connection since empathy/warmth makes us feel better
112
how might a placebo effect impact a randomized clinical trial?
- if the placebo effect isn't accounted for, then there's no way to tell if the recorded effect is due to the placebo, or due to the tested drug having an actual effect
113
what is a randomized clinical trial? how does it account for the placebo effect?
- accounts for the placebo effect by placing the placebo in the control condition
- if there's an observed difference between the placebo and the actual drug, then the drug has use
114
compare and contrast the nocebo effect and the placebo effect
- **nocebo effect**: belief of a harmless substance having a NEGATIVE effect, resulting in an actual negative reaction
- **placebo effect**: belief of a harmless substance having a POSITIVE effect, resulting in an actual positive reaction
115
what are the similarities between the 3 different health behaviours and the 3 types of preventative behaviours?
- well behaviour -> primary prevention
- symptom-based behaviour -> secondary prevention
- sick-role behaviour -> secondary and tertiary prevention
116
what is reactance? how might it play into vaccine hesitancy and resistance?
low tolerance for infringements on personal freedoms
someone get angry because they're forced to get a vaccine
117
what are 2 cognitive biases that might play into anti-vaxx attitudes?
1. backfire effect: people strengthen their original beliefs after learning contradicting evidence
2. dunning-kruger effect: people with limited knowledge/competence in a given intellectual/social domain often overestimate their own knowledge or competence in that domain
118
what are the 2 key factors in motivational interviewing? explain them
1. **decisional balance**: clients liste reasons for an against changing behaviour, which is used for points of discussion and to get a grasp of the patient's desire and potential for change
2. **personalized feedback**: clients receive information on their patterns of problem behaviours, comparing it with norms and risk factors
119
list some community and lifestyle factors that are associated with obesity
**community factors**
- lower SES
- lower % of college/university graduates
- fewer grocery stores and farmer's markets
- low satisfaction with safety and public transportation
- reduced accessibility to sports facilities
**lifestyle factors**
- unhealthy diet
- physical inactivity
- poor sleep
- screen time
- stress
- interpersonal factors
120
how are some ways that physical space will result in better health outcomes for patients?
*single-bed hospital rooms*
- reduced infection
- improved privacy
*sharing room with someone who had a successful surgery*
- reduces anxiety
*window with view of nature*
- improves satisfaction
- reduces anxiety and pain
*good hospital view*
- greater satisfaction
121
what is a cue, with respect to substance use? how do they occur?
- internal and environmental stimuli that is associated with a substance
- can result in craving and attention
- occurs through classical conditioning
122
how might cues affect withdrawal
- cues can signal the body to prepare itself for the substance, allowing for **physiological dependence**
- then, if the substance doesn't actually come, the body is like yo what the fuck and has a withdrawal tantrum
123
what are expectancies, with respect to substance use? how might this affect the way one interacts with a substance?
- ideas about the outcomes of behaviour
- developed from their own experiences and from watching other people
- might encourage or discourage someone to use a substance
124
what is self-regulation? how might it affect substance use/abuse?
- ability to control one's own thoughts, emotions, and actions toward achieving a goal, even when not being monitored by someone else
125
when are genetic and social factors important in the development of addiction? how do their strength of influence differ?
- social factors are strongest in adolescence
- genetic factors are strongest in adulthood
126
what are 2 factors what affect the likelihood of starting to smoke
- **susceptibility** (the absence of a commitment to not smoke)
- increasing curiosity
127
what is the temperance movement?
NO ALCOHOL. NONE. NOOONNNE
128
what is binge drinking
- having 5+ more drinks in one sitting
- at least one in 30 days
129
what is an alcoholic
- physically dependent or addicted to alcohol
- developed a high alcohol tolerance
- often have blackouts
130
how might social factors play into drinking?
- subjective norm that drinking is appropriate and desirable
- modelling behaviours of surroundings (e.g., matching drinking rates to those of their companions)
131
how does operant conditioning affect substance use
- **negative reinforcement**: substances can remove undesirable feelings (e.g., drink the pain away)
- **positive reinforcement**: substances can induce desirable feelings (e.g., euphoria from cocaine)
132
what are some health risks of drinkers?
- **cirrhosis**: liver disease where a lot of liver cells die and are replaced by nonfunctional scar tissue
- higher blood pressure
- brain damage
133
list 4 categories of drugs and describe them
**stimulants**
- produces physiological and psychological arousal
**depressants**
- decrease arousal activity of CNS
- increase relaxation
- can induce sleep and reduce anxety
**hallucinogens**
- causes distortions in perceptions
**opiates/narcotics**
- causes euphoria and relaxation
- reduces pain
134
at what age do most people begin using substances?
in adolescence
135
what are the 3 approaches that are in the most common and effective prevention approaches
1. public policy and legal issues
2. health promotion and education
3. family involvement
136
what are 2 types of interventions to prevent smoking? describe each one
**social influence approaches**
- focus on training skills to help individuals resist social pressures to smoke
- discussions/films about the social influences of smoking
- modelling and roleplaying of refusal skills
- let students decide on their intentions about smoking and publically announce this to classmates
**life skills training approaches**
- focuses on improving personal (e.g., cognition, coping) and general social skills, since teens who start smoking often lack these
137
can people stop smoking on their own? what is their main motivation? What is the general theme of traits among people who successfully quit?
- main motivation is commonly to improve health
- people can stop smoking on their own, even heavy smokers
- general theme of traits is self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation,
138
what are 3 factors that make successfully quitting smoking difficult?
- cigarette type
- invalid beliefs about smoking
- presence of emotional problems, or reliance on smoking to cope with said emotional problem
139
what is the recovery measure for drug dependence? explain it
**remission**
- when the person no doesn't meet the diagnostic criteria for dependence
- can include abstinence
140
what is the first step in substance use recovery? explain it
**detoxification**
- process of safely getting an addicted person through withdrawal
141
list and describe 4 cognitive-behavioural approaches to treating substance use
1. change cognitive and personality factors that increase risk of substance use (e.g., increase conscientiousness)
2. reduce the negatively reinforcing nature of substance (e.g., teach new coping strategies to manage stress)
3. get someone to positively reinforce stopping/reducing use of substance
4. **Cue exposure**: decrease the impact of cues by exposing them to these cues without allowing them to engage in the behaviour
142
list and describe 4 behavioural methods for treating substance use. What are these methods based on?
1. self-monitoring of things pertaining to the problem behaviour
2. stimulus control: removing cues in environment
3. competing response substitution: performing a behaviour that is incompatible/unlikely to occur with the problem behaviour (showering instead of smoking)
4. schedule reduction: using substance at scheduled intervals
5. behaviour contracting: writing out conditions and consequences of the problem behaviour
143
what are the 2 basic views of Alcoholics Anonymous? what are the 2 critical features?
**basic views**
1. once you are an alcoholic, you are always an alcoholic, even if you never drink again
2. alcoholics must commit to the goal of permanent and total abstinence
**critical features**
1. developing a social network that doesn't support drinking
2. having a sponsor that guides the process for a new member
144
Billy Bob is in a program that emphasizes spiritual awakening, public confession, and contrition. what program is he in? For what issue?
- Alcoholic Anonymous, which uses the 12-step program
- for Alcoholism
145
how might pharmacological treatments be used for substance abuse?
- certain drugs can block the effects of substances, or interact with the said substances to produce undesirable effects
146
what are 6 factors that can lead to a relapse of a changed behaviour?
- low self-efficacy
- negative emotions and poor coping
- expectation of reward if they use the substance again
- high craving
- interpersonal issues (e.g., bad social circles or lack of social support)
147
what are 2 factors in relapse that are specific to smoking?
1. weight gain after quitting smoking
2. beliefs about the health risks of smoking tend to decrease after a relapse
148
what is the relapse prevention method?
*therapist-supervised self-management program*
- learn to identify *high-risk* situations in which lapses are likely to occur
- acquire competent and specific *coping skills*
- practice effective coping skills in high-risk situations under a therapist's supervision
149
compare the relapse prevention method with cognitive-behavioural therapy
- both include the goal of *self-management*, which is where the client can continue the methods learned in therapy on their own
- both involve self-observation
150
what are 4 additional approaches that can enhance relapse prevention?
- providing periodic and scheduled *telephone counselling*
- the continued use of a chemical method after treatment ends
- practicing tasks that *build self-control*
- develop social networks that *provide constructive support* for abstinence and minimize negative support
151
what are the 3 different types of efforts to prevent illness?
**3 types**
- behavioural influence
- environmental measures
- preventative medical efforts
152
Billy bob eats pure sugar every day. If he sees Jimmy Joe, under what circumstances would he be likely to mimic Jimmy Joe's behaviours? what is this term called?
**modelling**: learning by observing the behaviour of others
more like to occur if the model:
- is similar to themselves
- is a high-status person
152
what are 3 types of consequences in operant conditioning?
**reinforcement**: person wants to do behaviour more because of good consequence!
**extinction**: if the consequences that maintain a behaviour are eliminated, the response tendency graudall weakens
**punishment**: person doesn't want to do behaviour more because of an unwanted consequence
153
what are 3 factors that influence people's perceived threat in the health belief model?
1. percieved seriousness of the health problem
2. perceived susceptibility to the health problem
3. cues to action: being reminded about a potential health problem
154
what are 2 shortcomings of the theory of planned behaviour?
1. is incomplete (e.g., doesn't include prior experience with behaviour
2. intentions and behaviours are not strongly related and that people don't always do what they mean to do
155
why might a baby be at risk of low birth weight
- maternal malnutrition
- infections during pregnancy affecting the baby
- maternal substance use harming the baby
156
Emmie drinks a lot, though she's pregnant. what might this result in? name the term and describe it
**fetal alcohol syndrome**
- slow growth before and after birth
- intellectual deficits
- certain facial expressions (e.g., small eye opening)
157
what is acculturation
- a process whereby an immigrant adopts the health behaviour of their new culture
158
3 factors in cultural diversity issues for professionals in promoting health
different sociological groups have:
- **biological factors**: differ in their physiological processes
- **cognitive and linguistic factors**: have different ideas about the causes of illness, give different degrees of attention to their body, and interpret symptoms differently
- **social and emotional factors**: differ in the amount of stress, reactivity, and coping, as well as amount and use of social support
159
what is self management?
- where therapists teach behavioural and cognitive methods to clients so the client can eventually apply it themselves independently
160
what are the two criteria that we judge weight?
1. appearance
2. health?
161
what might the body do with excess calories?
- res it into these fancy fat cells
162
what is the set-point theory?
- the body has a specific weight that is set during adolescence and development
- this is influenced the the size and amount of the fat cells
- the body will adjust metabolism to meet the weight accordingly
163
what does the set-point theory not explain?
- how people actually fuckin lose weight
164
what does high serum levels of insulin result in? name the term
165
what does the set point in regulating weight rely on?
- the fat cells?
166
why is the diet in childhood and adolescence important?
- it determines the size of the fat cells
- this later determines the set point of weight
167
what happens when an individual develop too many fat cells? name this term
168
what are 5 psychosocial factors involved in weight control?
- stigma?
- socio-economic status
169
what is binge eating?
- eating a subjective or objectively large amount of food
- feeling out of control
170
why should one limit processed sugar and refined grains? name this term and explain it
171
what is gluten?
- protein in grain
172
what actually causes the symptoms of gluten sensitivity?
- fructans
173
what are compensatory beliefs
- acts to "make up" for other unhealthy acts
- idea that healthy acts cancel out unhealthy ones
174
what are 2 factors that increase the likelihood of one succeeding at losing weight
175
what are the common techniques that lifestyle interventions use? how is this similar to interventions used for substance use/abuse
- CBT?
176
what are 4 medically-supervised approaches to weight loss?
177
what are 4 reasons that it might be difficult to maintain weight loss?
178
what are the 3 types of situations in which people who lost weight overeat?
179
what is the main forms of therapy for anorexia and bulimia?
180
what is isotonic exercise
181
what is isometric exercise
182
what is isokinetic exercise
183
what are 3 psychosocial benefits of exercise?
184
what are the 3 benefits of fitness on cardiovascular health?
185
at what stage in the trans theoretical model are people most likely to exercise?
186
what is aerobic exercise?
187
what is the chronic care model? how should it be incorporated into health care?
188
to what extent is adherence important?
189
how might cultural sensitivity come into play in the patient-practioner relationship?
190
what are 2 psychocultural factors that affect adherence?
191
what are 3 broad areas what affects adherence? give examples for each one
192
if someone were treated like a possession left behind, what would this be called? why would someone do this?
193
how does blame manifest in after being in bad health condition? what might this result in?
194
how might someone be supported while under full anesthesia? why is this important?
195
what are 4 psychological characteristics that affect cardiovascular disease?
196
what are the two approaches in assessing emotional adjustment?
197
what does the MMPI assess? on what scales?
198
what is the MBMD?
199
