Motivation To Work

Question 1

Need theories 1

Answer 1

Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970)

1. Maslow’s original hierarchy of needs
   > Basic needs
   > Psychological needs
   > Self-fulfillment needs
2. Proposes that basic human needs need to be satisfied before we can begin to satisfy higher needs.
3. Maslow cliamed that all needs of humans could be arranged in a hierarchy.
   > A person moves through the hierarchy by fulfilling each level, so that the basic physiological needs need to be met before moving up.
   > Some people may never move through the entire hierarchy.
4. Updated model has 8 stages:
   > Deficiency needs
   » Arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet.
   » The motivation to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied.
   » For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.
   » Maslow later clarified that satisfaction of a need is not an ‘all-or-none’ phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given ‘the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges’.
   » When a deficit need has been ‘more or less’ satisfied, it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs.
   » However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged.
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   A. Biological and physicological needs
   > Basic survival needs: air, shelter, water, food, sleep and sex.
   B. Safety needs
   > Stable society with appropriate legal and justice systems.
   C. Love and belongingness needs
   > Was called ‘social needs’ in the earlier model and focused primarily on friendship and family.
   > In the later model, this focus has widened slightly to include all the groups that we belong to: work, family, friends and romantic relationships.
   D. Esteem needs
   > This level is the same as in the original model.
   > Refers to achievements: skills, status, independence etc.
   > Could be met vey differently in different people.
   > Some feel a sense of esteem through their family roles, well-paid jobs, voluntary work or creation of something that receives critical acclaim.
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   > Growth needs
   » Do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
   » Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualisation.
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   A. Cognitive needs
   > Relates to our need for information, knowledge and meaning.
   > It is worth considering how the internet may have changed not only our ability to access information but also our need for it.
   B. Aesthetic needs
   > Our need and appreciation of beauty.
   C. Self-actualisation
   > Followed by the original final stage.
   > Reaching our personal potential and become fulfilled.
   D. Transcendence needs
   > Refers to our ability to help others to also achieve self-actualisation.
5. Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences.
   > For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfilment may supersede even the most basic needs.
6. Maslow also pointed out that most behaviour is multi-motivated and noted that ‘any behaviour tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them’.

Question 2

Need theories 2

Answer 2

ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1972)

1. A revision of Maslow’s theory.
   > To bring Maslow’s need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronisation with empirical research, Clayton Alderfer redefined it in his own terms.
2. He recategorised and simplified Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes of needs.
   A. Existence needs
   > These include the need for basic material necessities.
   > Described in the first two levels of Maslow’s hierarchy.
   > Includes an individual’s physiological and physical safety needs.
   > At work, this could be met via providing healthy meals and having a bullying policy so the employee feels healthy/safe and will feel motivated as these needs have been met.
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   B. Relatedness needs
   > Include the aspiration individual have for maintaining significant interpersonal relationships (be it with family, peers or superiors), getting public fame and recognition.
   > Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs fall under this class of need.
   » Internal and external self-esteem.
   » Need of relatedness satisfies external self-esteeem.
   > This could be met at work by praising staff and having work social events so the employee feels good about their work and will likely work harder.
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   C. Growth needs
   > Include need for self-development and personal growth and advancement.
   > Maslow’s self-actualisation needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs fall under this category of need.
   > Provided at work via clear progression/development so the employee feels that hard work will lead to a better job and are therefore motivated.
3. Ideally paid work will provide for all three of these needs and this is where the individual experiences the greatest motivation.
   > For example, your job should provide at least for all your existence needs but you will be more motivated if your job also provides for some of your relatedness and growth needs.

Question 3

Need theories 3

Answer 3

Theory of Achievement Motivation (McClelland, 1965)

1. Different needs motivate different people and these differences are measurable.
2. Three types of needs:
   A. Need for achievement (N-Ach)
   > Need to get things done, achieve and be successful.
   > These people are highly motivated by challenges and appraisals (feedback).
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   B. Need for affiliation (N-Affil)
   > Need to be liked by others, to be accepted as part of a group, to put effort into developing and maintaining social relationships.
   > They prefer to work with others and will be motivated by cooperative tasks.
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   C. Need for power (N-Pow)
   > Need to have influence and control over others.
   > They are motivated by the chance to gain status or prestige or to be looked up to by others.
3. McClelland’s three types of motivation practical applications.
   > McClelland said that most people possess and exhibit a combination of these characteristics.
   > Some people exihibit a strong bias to a particular motivational need, and this motivational or needs ‘mix’ consequently affects their behaviour and working/managing style.
   > N-Affil
   » McClelland suggested that a strong n-affil ‘affiliation-motivation’ undermines a manager’s objectivity, because of their need to be liked, and that this affects a manager’s decision-making capability.
   > N-Pow
   » A strong n-pow ‘authority motivaton’ will produce a determined work ethic and commitment to the organisation and while n-pow people are attracted to the leadership role, they may not possess the required flexibility and people-centred skills.
   > N-Ach
   » McClelland argues that n-ach person with strong ‘achievement motivation’ make the best leaders, although there can be a tendency to demand too much of their staff in the belief that they are all similarly and highly focused and results-driven, which of course most people are not.
4. Characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people
   > Achievement is more important than material or financial reward.
   > Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving praise or recognition.
   > Financial reward is not a prime motivator, nor is status.
   > Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual).
   > They constantly seek improvemnets and ways of doing things better.
   > They will logically favour jobs and responsibilities that naturally satisfy their needs, i.e., offer flexibility and opportunity to set and achieve goals, e.g., sales and business management, and entrepreneurial roles.
5. McClelland firmly believed that achievement-motivated people are generally the ones who make things happen and get results and that this extends to getting results through the organisation of other people and resources, although they often demand too much of their staff because they prioritise achieving the goal above the many varied interests and needs of people.
6. N-Ach can be measured by Thematic Apperception Test or TAT.
   > Series of ambiguous images which an individual is asked to interpret.
7. This theory comes under a projective test.
   > Personality test that uses ambiguous stimuli such as ink blots or the Thematic Apperception Test.
   > As it is subjective, it has low reliability and validity.

Question 4

Evaluation for needs theories

Answer 4

1. Difficult to support the belief that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, hence Alderfer’s approach may be more accurate.
2. Maslow’s self-actualisation has also been hard to test as it was based on a small number of people that he thought were ‘self-actualised’.
3. Theories of motivation can be applied to workplaces as the organisation tries to implement needs such as physiological, safety, social and self-esteem.
4. McClelland’s theory can be applied in the workplace to help understand personal characteristics and to ensure that people are given roles that suit their particular need for achievement.

Question 5

Cognitive theories 1

Answer 5

Goal-setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984)

1. Opposes McClelland’s idea that internal motives were largely unconscious and measurable only by projective tests.
2. Locke and Latham based their work on the claims made by Ryan who argued that ‘it seems a simple fact that human behaviour is affected by conscious purposes, plans, intentions, tasks and the like’.
3. Locke suggested that goal setting was a key motivator in getting people to work hard and improve their performance.
   > He showed that clear goals and appropriate feedback motivate employees.
4. They suggest that setting specific goals produces higher levels of performance than setting vague goals.
   > For example, stating as a goal ‘I want to earn more money’ is too vague and is less likely to affect the way a person behaves whereas someone who states ‘I want to earn $50 more each week’ will be more likely to achieve this.
   > Specific goals are harder to achieve and present a greater challenge.
   > Goal-setting theory claims that this will make the individual try harder because it feels more of an accomplishment to achieve something you’ve worked hard for.
5. Goal setting theory provides guidance on how to set goals based on five key principles.
   A. Clarity
   > Goals should be clear, specific, unambiguous and measurable.
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   B. Challenge
   > Goals should be relevant and linked to rewards.
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   C. Complexity
   > Goals must be achievable within a specific time period.
   > Take special care to ensure that work doesn’t become too overwhelming when goals or assignments are highly complex.
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   D. Commitment
   > Goals must be understood and accepted in order to be effective.
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   E. Feedback
   > Goal setting must involve feedback on task progress and achievement.
   > If the only assessment was whether the goal had been reached or not, it is possible that many weaknesses in performance may be missed.
   > Feedback allows us to identify weaknesses and find more efficient, easier and quicker ways of achieving the goal.
   > Feedback needs to be positive and constructive, and focus on the strategies used.
   > This process should allow for reflection by the individual rather than simply feedback from a superior.
6. The SMART method of goal setting developed from these five principles. SMART targets are targets or goals which are:
   > Specific: I want to set up a business selling jewellery I have made myself.
   > Measurable: I will aim to sell five items on eBay to begin with.
   > Attainable: I will start with an eBay store and then research other options.
   > Relevant: I will be turning my hobby into a money-making enterprise.
   > Timescale: I will aim to list five items on eBay within one week and 20 items within two weeks.
7. ‘Backward Goal Setting’ method of goal setting.
   > The individual is encouraged to work backwards from the end goal in order to determine the most appropriate way of reaching this goal.

Question 6

Cognitive theories 2

Answer 6

Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)

1. Proposes that workers are rational beings whose decision making is guided by logical thought processes in which potential costs and rewards play a significant role.
2. Vroom focuses on outcomes and not on needs unlike Maslow.
3. The theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular manner is dependent on the intensity of an expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to the individual.
4. Vroom recognised that a worker’s performance would be influenced by a wide range of factors, including knowledge, skills and experience as well as individual characteristics such as personality and different ambitions and goals.
   > He claims that all workers can be motivated if there is a clear relationship between effort and performance, if the favourable performance is rewarded, if the reward satisfies a need and, if the desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the efffort worthwhile.
5. Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
   A. Expectancy
   > The perception of how much effort relates to performance as well as a worker’s confidence in what they are capable of doing.
   > Can be modified by the provision of additional resources or by training and supervision.
   > Effort-performance relationship
   » The likelihood that the individual’s effort be recognised in his performance appraisal.
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   B. Instrumentality
   > The perception of how much effort will be rewarded and whether workers actually believe that they will be given the reward that has been offered.
   > Instrumentality will be positively affected if the management makes sure that rewards are always given as promised.
   > Performance-reward relationship
   » The extent to which the employee believes that getting a good performance appraisal leads to organisational rewards.
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   C. Valence
   > The perception of the strength or the size of the reward as well as the extent to which this reward is needed or wanted.
   > It is likely that a small reward will produce low motivation regardless of the values of expectancy and instrumentality, and similarly if the value of any one of the three is low, then overall motivation is likely to be low.
   > Rewards-personal goals relationship
   » The attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual.

Question 7

Advantages of the expectancy theory

Answer 7

1. Based on self-interest individuals who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who want to minimise dissatisfaction.
2. Stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is immaterial.
3. Emphasis on rewards or pay-offs.
4. Focuses on psychological extravagance where the final objective of an individual is to attain maximum pleasure and least pain.

Question 8

Limitations of the expectancy theory

Answer 8

1. Seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high degree correlation between performance and least pain.
2. The application of this theory is limited as rewards are not directly correlated with performance in many organisations.
3. It is related to other parameters such as position, effort, responsibility, education etc.

Question 9

Implications of the expectancy theory

Answer 9

1. The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels.
2. The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.
3. The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.
4. The reward system must be fair and just in an organisation.
5. Organisations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs.
6. The employee’s motivation level should be continually assessed through various techniques such as questionnaire, personal interviews.

Question 10

Cognitive theories 3

Answer 10

Equity theory (Adams, 1963)

1. An application of social psychology, where Social Exchange Theory predicts that people will weigh up what an action will cost them in terms of the benefits it will produce.
2. Equity Theory was an application of this idea to the workplace.
3. Proposes that workers expect things to be fair.
   > They expect pay, status and recognition to equate to the amout of effort that they put in.
4. Suggest that workers bring certain things to the job, such as skills, qualifications, energy, enthusiasm and effort.
   > These are referred to as INPUT (I) and may be perceived (Ip) or actual (Ia).
   > Workers expect certain things from their job, including pay, recognition, involvement and many other benefits.
   > These all referred to as outcome (O) and these may be perceived (Op) or actual (Oa).
5. The significant factor in Equity Theory is comparison with others.
   > If we perceive others being treated better than us, then the perceived inequality will lead to decreased motivation.
   > Workers compare themselves with other workers in similar posts to check the fairness or the equity of their own position.
   > If they believe that the situation they are in is one of inequality (unfairness), this can result in low motivation.
6. Perceived inequality will lead to demotivation.
   > This is strongly related to the concept of organisational commitment.
7. Underpayment equity might be felt if you find out that someone else in the same post as you is being paid considerably more, despite being less experienced and less qualified.
   > To bring the situation back to one of equity, you could try to increase the outcomes from your job, perhaps by asking for a salary incease or you could try to decrease your input.
   > You could decide that you had made an inappropriate comparison and find someone else to compare yourself to which will make you feel better about the situation, or find some other way to distort the way that the inputs and outcomes are perceived.
   > A final option might be to leave and find another job.
8. Overpayment equity might be felt if you were being rewarded more than you deserved or at least, more than the people you were comparing yourself to.
   > You might decide to work harder as your input doesn’t match the outcomes.
   > It is unlikely that you would look for options that decreased the outcomes such as asking for a pay cut or asking for more work.
   > You could use the cognitive strategies, divide that you need to compare yourself to different people or find some other way to distort either the input or the outcomes to reach a state of equity.

Question 11

Evaluation of the cognitive theories

Answer 11

1. All three of the theories outlined focus on the way that the individual perceives the situation that they are in, rather than the situation itself.
2. High ecological validity
   > Can be usefully and effectively applied to the workplace.
   > If goals are specific, measurable and achievable, they will be more effective.
   » Roberts points out that a manager cannot simply say ‘do your best’ and expect this to be effective.
   > Expectancy Theory can also be applied in similar ways such as involving workers in the goal setting process and ensuring that rewards are appropriate and will be valued by workers.
   > Equity Theory demonstrates the importance and impact of the way individuals compare themselves.
3. Difficult to generalise to all organisations due to many different variables involved in each.
4. Equity Theory demonstrates the importance of understanding the way that the individual makes sense of their role in comparison to others.
   > A field study conducted by Martin and Peterson, and reported by Hayward provides some support for Equity Theory.
   > It showed that when new workers in a retail environment were taken on at a lower pay scale than existing workers, they perceived underpayment inequality as they were being paid less than other workers for doing the same job.
   > However the existing workers did not perceive overpayment inequity as they were not comparing themselves to the new workers and maintained the comparisons they were making prior to the introduction of the new scheme.
5. Application to everyday life
   > SMART targets are used in many schools.
   > Students can develop their learning goals accordingly and schedule a timetable for it.