Leaders and Followers

Question 1

Leader 1

Answer 1

Leader-member exchange model (Dansereau et al., 1995)

1. To explain the manager-worker relationship.
2. Originally, Dansereau et al. had proposed the Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory which suggested that leaders can treat their followers in two different ways: they may treat some of them as trusted followers and others in more formal ways.
3. This theory has now become known as the leader-member exchange model.
   > This theory makes a dyadic relationship between leaders and followers.
   > A dyadic relationship describes the relationship between two people. In a dyadic relationship, the two people must have known each other for a length of time and had many interactions. Dyadic relationships are intense and intimate but require work on every member’s part.
4. In-group
   > More information, influence, confidence and concern from the leader.
   > More dependable, highly involved and communicative than out-group.
5. Out-group
   > Less compatible with leaders.
   > Usually they just come to work, do their job and go home.
6. Initially, research was done to see the differences between in-group and out-group. Later, research looked into the quality of leader member relationships.
7. A further model, the individualised leadership model suggests that each follower should be understood as independent and each leader viewed as unique.
8. Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory claims that the relationship between a manager and his or her followers is developed through three stages:
   A. Role-taking stage
   > Individuals become team members and meet their leader.
   > Leaders need to make expectations clear and team members need to make their skills and abilities evident to the leader so that he or she can determine how each person may contribute to the team.
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   B. Role-making stage
   > Members of the team become integrated into the team and begin work.
   > This allows them the opportunity to further prove their skills and ability to work with others.
   > The leader may then determine who becomes part of the in-group and who belongs in the out-group.
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   C. Role routinisation stage
   > In-group members and the leader engage in ‘mutual and high quality leader and subordinates exchanges’ which further develops their relationships.
   > This can lead to improvements within the group.
   > A study by Erdogan et al. showed that this is due to the out-group members attempting to communicate well with the in-group members as they are closely connected to the leader. This may allow them to achieve a move from the out-group to the in-group.
9. Dansereau’s individualised leadership model extends the theory described above by focusing on the one-to-one relationship between a superior and a specific subordinate, involving:
   > The supervisor’s investments in and returns from the subordinate
   > The subordinate’s investments in and returns from the superior

Question 2

Follower 1

Answer 2

Followership (Kelley, 1988)

1. Followership refers to a role held by certain individuals in an organisation, team or group. Specifically, it is the way in which an individual actively follows a leader.
2. It is important to recognise that the role of leader can only be understood by also examining the reciprocal role of follower.
   > Kelley claims that the study of ‘followership’ will lead to a better understanding of leadership.
   > The success or failure of a group may not be solely down to the ability of a leader but may also be dependent on how well the followers can follow.
3. Kelley described 4 main qualities of effective followers:
   A. Self-management
   > Refers to the ability to think critically, to be in control of one’s actions and to work independently.
   > It is important that followers manage themselves well as leaders are able to delegate tasks to these individuals.
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   B. Commitment
   > Refers to an individual being committed to the goal, vision or cause of a group, team or organisation.
   > This is an important quality of followers as it helps keep one’s (and other member’s) morale and energy levels high.
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   C. Competence
   > It is essential that individuals possess the skills and aptitudes necessary to complete the goal or task of the group, team or organisation.
   > Individuals high in this quality often hold skills higher than their average co-workers (or team members).
   > Further, these individuals continue their pursuit of knowledge by upgrading their skills through classes and seminars.
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   D. Courage
   > Effective followers hold true to their beliefs, and maintain and uphold ethical standards, even in the face of dishonest or corrupt superiors (leaders).
   > These individuals are loyal, honest and, importantly, candid with their superiors.
4. Kelley also identified 2 characteristics (dimensions) which help to identify the difference between followers and non-followers:
   A. Critical thinking
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   B. Whether the individual is active or passive
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   > This gives 5 types of followers:
   A. The sheep
   > Passive, lack commitment and require external motivation and constant supervision from the leader.
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   B. The yes-people
   > These individuals are committed to the leader and the goal (or task) of the organisation (or group/team).
   > These conformist individuals do not question the decisions or actions of the leader.
   > The yes-people will defend their leader when faced with opposition from others.
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   C. The pragmatics
   > These individuals are not trail-blazers; they will not stand behind controversial or unique ideas until the majority of the group has expressed their support.
   > These individuals often remain in the background of the group.
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   D. The alienated
   > These individuals are negative and often attempt to stall or bring the group down by constantly questioning the decisions and actions of the leader.
   > These individuals often view themselves as the rightful leader of the organisation and are critical of the leader and fellow group members.
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   E. The star followers
   > These exemplary individuals are positive, active and independent thinkers.
   > Star followers will not blindly accept the decisions or actions of a leader until they have evaluated them completely.
   > These types of followers can succeed without the presence of a leader.

Question 3

Leader 2

Answer 3

Measuring leadership (Kouzes and Posner, 1987)

1. Kouzes and Posner argue that leadership is a ‘measurable, learnable an teachable set of behaviours’.
2. They developed the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to measure the extent to which an individual engages in each of the 5 practices of exemplary leadership which they established through their research with successful leaders.
3. The LPI consists of 6 behavioural statements for each of these practices and examples of these statements are given below:
   A. Model the way
   > ‘Sets a personal example of what he/she expects of others’
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   B. Inspire a shared vision
   > ‘Describes a compelling image of what our future could be like’
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   C. Challenge the process
   > ‘Challenges people to try out new and innovative ways to do their work’
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   D. Enable others to act
   > ‘Supports the decisions that people make on their own’
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   E. Encourage the heart
   > ‘Praise people for a job well done’
4. The LPI consists of the individual’s self-ratings of the frequency with which they demonstrate these behaviours, and a number of observer ratings.
   > These are combined on the final profile.
5. Kouzes and Posner strongly believe that leadership is learned rather than something one is born with.
   > This means that the profile is produced after completion of the LPI does not simply provide a picture of the behaviours that someone exhibits but can be used to identify areas for personal development.
   > They claim that there are many different ways in which different types of people (eg: extroverts VS introverts) can be developed into successful leaders.

Question 4

Evaluation

Answer 4

1. Nature vs Nurture
   > Kouzes and Posner argue that leadership is something that can be learned rather than something which we are born with.
   > By exploring the personality characteristics of an individual, they can suggest different ways in which different types of people can be developed into successful leaders.
2. Individual-situational debate
   > It should be possible to develop someone into the most successful type of leader based on not only their existing personality type and attitudes, but also in the situation (group) which they are going to lead.
   > Kelley shifts the focus from leaders to followers although does not directly address the question of whether followership qualities are born or made.
   » We might assume that he would suggest that the follower types are based on innate qualities of an individual but it is likely that the follower qualities discussed prior to the follower types are qualities that could be developed.
   > As with many of the other theories, Kelley’s work highlights the importance of the relationship between the leader and the situation, in this case the type of followers that the leader must lead.
3. Application to everyday life
   > Increasing our understanding of these relationships is clearly useful for organisations and can be applied in a variety of ways.
   > The work of Dansereau helps further by explaining the stages through which the leader-group member relationship follows.