Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Question 1

Biological motivation includes the role of the ___________, which maintains a state called homeostasis.

Answer 1

hypothalamus

Question 2

change in the physiological factors controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 2

arousal

Question 3

unpleasant feeling that occurs when your behavior doesn’t match your beliefs or cognitive assessment. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition).

Answer 3

cognitive dissonance

Question 4

force that pushes a person toward a particular behavior

Answer 4

drive

Question 5

incentive to perform a behavior for external reward or to avoid punishment from others.

Answer 5

extrinsic motivation

Question 6

process during which the output of one action becomes the input of another action. If exercise produces a rise in the body’s temperature, that rise triggers cooling mechanisms in the homeostatic process. The body cools, the temperature change causes the cooling process to slow down or stop as the body returns to an acceptable temperature.

Answer 6

feedback

Question 7

list of lower-to higher-level needs that humanistic psychologists believe all people possess.

Answer 7

hierarchy of needs

Question 8

list of lower-to higher-level needs that humanistic psychologists believe all people possess.

Answer 8

hierarchy of needs

Question 9

self-adjusting process that maintains a constant internal environment in an organism.

Answer 9

homeostasis

Question 10

force that pulls a person toward a particular behavior.

Answer 10

incentive

Question 11

innate, unlearned behavior

Answer 11

instinct

Question 12

incentive to perform a behavior for its own sake and for self-satisfaction.

Answer 12

intrinsic motivation

Question 13

unlearned needs for basic things that affect the ongoing function of the body.

Answer 13

primary needs

Question 14

psychological needs - such as money and achievement - that may or may not have something to do with primary needs.

Answer 14

secondary needs

Question 15

This humanistic psychologist once proposed that humans have a hierarchy of needs: The basic biological needs that we require for survival but higher needs such as recognition, achievement, and a sense of fulfilling our potential as human beings. These needs provide us with the motives for our behavior.

Answer 15

Maslow

Question 16

One of the most important factors in motivation is ______. The way we feel plays a key role in motivation and in other areas of cognition.

Answer 16

emotion

Question 17

Motivation may be __________ (“I’ll need a good grade, so I’ll study”) or ________ (nibbling on food while you’re studying)

Answer 17

conscious; unconscious

Question 18

Needs -> Drive ->|———————–
\/ \/
BEHAVIOR——-Emotion
/\ /\
Incentive——————–

Answer 18

components of motivation

Question 19

evolutionary psychology- Charles Darwin. Human behavior is driven by innate instinctual drives (unlearned) like those for some birds and fish. Later revealed its limitations in that it could only describe the behavior of humans but not provide an explanation.

Answer 19

Instinct Theory

Question 20

Clark Hull - humans have innate biological needs (for example, thirst) and social needs (for example, love), and that drives compel us to satisfy our needs.
A person who realizes she is thirsty (a need) then feels an internal motivation (the drive) to find water to satisfy that need.
An organism will do whatever is necessary to reduce the unpleasant sensation. Of course, humans often act counter to this. People will go on hunger strikes if they feel strongly about some cause. The motivation to not eat in this situation is greater than the biological motivation to eat. MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS.

Answer 20

Drive-Reduction Theory

Question 21

we are not pushed internally by needs but are pulled from the outside by external incentives. For example, if we walk by a bakery, the aroma of bread or the sight of freshly baked loaves may entice us inside whether or not we are hungry.

Answer 21

incentive theory

Question 22

Stimulation is a primary need. Too much stimulation causes stress, so homeostatic processes are working here as well. Some people exhibit a drive towards high-risk situations that are uncomfortable without adrenaline rush. Others are content to watch and would feel uncomfortable if they were forced to engage in high-risk behaviors.

Answer 22

arousal theory

Question 23

Maslow - Humans have needs beyond those of survival and reducing drive tensions. The need to do something important with one’s life is as essential as the basic biological needs. Lower level needs must be met first before one would move to higher levels and, eventually to self-actualization.

Answer 23

humanistic theory

Question 24

A boy who plays the violin for four hours a day simply to excel is driven by

Answer 24

intrinsic motivation

Question 25

if practice sessions are motivated by external rewards such as winning a competition or gaining admiration from his parents, this is

Answer 25

extrinsic motivation

Question 26

region of the brain most often associated with motivation. It plays an important role in the motivation for feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sexual reproduction.

Answer 26

hypothalamus

Question 27

if we lesion this hypothalamus in a rat, the rat will lose its appetite. The rat will experience a form of anorexia in which it will not be hungry and, therefore, will not eat. Thus, we believe that the ______
hypothalamus provides motivation for hunger or feeding.

Answer 27

lateral

Question 28

important in eating behavior, seems to be the satiety center (the part of the brain that tells you that you’re full). If we lesion this hypothalamus, the rat will not feel full and will continue to eat well beyond what is normally expected.

Answer 28

ventromedial

Question 29

Hunger drive external factors

Answer 29

stress, habits, cues

Question 30

A person may eat to counteract negative feelings produced by stress. (Stress- unpleasant, Eating pleasant) Certain foods release the neurotransmitter ______, which has a calming effect.

Answer 30

serotonin

Question 31

One monitors chemicals related to the amount of glucose in the body. When glucose drops, the hypothalamus produces a sensation of hunger. After the need has been met, other chemicals are released that signal the feeling that you are full.
A second homeostatic system measures the amount of fats and amino acids stored in the body’s cells. When their levels drop too low, hunger signals are switched on.

Answer 31

Internal factors of hunger in the hypothalamus

Question 32

Each person burns food at a different rate and expends energy with different efficiency. A person with a high metabolic rate can eat more without gaining weight than someone who is just as active, but has a lower metabolic rate.

Answer 32

basal metabolic rate

Question 33

Falling below that “set point” of weight triggers biological processes that cause us to get hungry more often.

Answer 33

body set point

Question 34

Tastes are an important factor when we first begin eating. It encourages us to continue. Before long, the taste buds begin to shut down so that we are willing to stop eating when we are full.

Answer 34

taste sensation

Question 35

pleasure that organisms derive from sex ensures that they will procreate, helping their species survive. Like hunger, it is a complex interaction involving chemistry, biology, and psychology. Chemistry plays a role, the release of specific chemicals in the body triggers the emotions we associate with this. Cognition also plays an important role in mediating this. Just as cultural beliefs play a role in determining the foods one will eat or avoid, personal values and cultural customs are determining factors in when, how, and with whom one satisfies this drive.

Answer 35

sex drive

Question 36

David McClelland - explored what motivated humans to challenge themselves, particularly in relation to others. He developed a theory in which he used experimental data based on participants’ descriptions of ambiguous pictures to support his claims. He found that subjects who scored high on tests of achievement were more likely to be entrepreneurs. Other theories of social motivation claim that
fear can be a very powerful motivator, with some humans being driven by a fear of
failure while others are more afraid of success.

Answer 36

need for achievement

Question 37

One way that we can provide motivation for ourselves is to delay gratification by
holding off on a reward until after we perform some less desirable activity.

Answer 37

premack principle

Question 38

before individuals can concern themselves with self-actualization they must first take care of more basic fundamental needs (such as hunger and thirst) and psychological needs (such as love and self-esteem).

Answer 38

maslow’s hiearchy or needs

Question 39

We have a psychological response and we label it as an emotion: ○ “I see a bear, my muscles tense, I feel afraid.”

Answer 39

james lange theory

Question 40

We have an emotional response and we feel the physiological response: ○ “I see a bear, I feel afraid, my muscles tense.”

Answer 40

cannon bard theory

Question 41

We experience feelings and then label them:
○ “I feel bad. I must be scared.”

Answer 41

schatcher singer theory

Question 42

When there is no physiological arousal, we experience something; we think about it, we label it as an emotion.
○ “I don’t know why, but I feel… “

Answer 42

cognitive appraisal

Question 43

Jung’s term for the universal forms that we encounter, such as mother, father, god, hero, and leader.

Answer 43

archetypes

Question 44

devices used by the ego to avoid pain or reduce anxiety.

Answer 44

defense mechanisms

Question 45

Freud’s term for the cognitive and perceptual processes that are in touch with reality.

Answer 45

ego

Question 46

Freud’s term for the part of the unconscious mind containing biological and sexual drives.

Answer 46

id

Question 47

trait wherein one works for personal and individual goals.

Answer 47

individualism

Question 48

mental state when a person’s conscious thoughts are dominated by an inability to succeed.

Answer 48

inferiority complex

Question 49

principle upon which the superego acts; a combination of conscience and a moral self-image.

Answer 49

morality principle

Question 50

according to Jung, the image of ourselves that we present to others.

Answer 50

persona

Question 51

drive to satisfy needs and avoid pain; principle upon which the id acts.

Answer 51

pleasure principle

Question 52

part of the mind from which information from the unconscious can be retrieved by the conscious mind.

Answer 52

preconscious

Question 53

recognition of the real environment; what the ego tempers the needs id with.

Answer 53

reality principle

Question 54

Freud’s term for the part of the mind that engages in ethical decision making and moral reasoning.

Answer 54

superego

Question 55

part of mind that contains thoughts, feelings, and desires of which we are mostly unaware.

Answer 55

unconscious

Question 56

Many of the causes of human behavior are outside of consciousness. We do what we do for reasons that we don’t completely understand. Moreover, many of our desires are either sexual or aggressive in nature. Freud believed that personality is formed from unconscious drives or conflicts that we need to resolve. According to Freud, we have 3 levels of consciousness.

Answer 56

psychoanalytic approach

Question 57

Freud’s 3 levels of consciousness

Answer 57

• Conscious - what we are aware of
• Preconscious - What we are not aware of but could be if we wanted to recall the information.
• Unconscious - Information that is potentially dangerous to think about, so it is buried. We are not able to access this information, but it does come out under some circumstances.

Question 58

3 components of personality (Freud)

Answer 58

id, superego, ego

Question 59

how does the ego use defense mechanisms?

Answer 59

diverting the anxiety that might occur and deflecting that energy towards something else.

Question 60

Parts of defense mechanisms

Answer 60

repression, projection, reaction formation, sublimation, displacement, regression, denial, rationalization

Question 61

Anxiety is so strong that we push the cause of the anxiety deep into the unconscious. At times, the anxiety may rise to the surface via dreams or “Freudian slips.”

Answer 61

repression

Question 62

We see anxiety-causing behavior in others rather than in ourselves.

Answer 62

projeciton

Question 63

We engage in the opposite of an anxiety-producing behavior. Suppose one is interested in pornography. This is a socially unacceptable behavior, so to protect his ego, he might engage in a protest against pornography.

Answer 63

reaction formation

Question 64

We replace a socially unacceptable desire or urge with something socially acceptable. We would replace our desire to hit someone with exercise, for example.

Answer 64

sublimation

Question 65

We take out our anxiety on someone other than the person who caused the anxiety.

Answer 65

displacement

Question 66

When confronted with anxiety, we retreat to an earlier stage of development. We may curl up on the sofa like a baby, or we may ask our parents to bail us out of a dilemma.

Answer 66

regression

Question 67

We push the existence of some problem right out of our heads as if it did not exist, or we refuse to acknowledge and confront it.

Answer 67

denial

Question 68

We legitimize our failures by coming up with logical-sounding excuses for what happened. For example, we might say, “The college that did not accept me has a poor perception in the academic community.”

Answer 68

raitonalization

Question 69

Freud’s theory suggested that we go through several stages of _____ _____ development. We must successfully navigate the issues with each stage to develop without issues that will influence behavior later.

Answer 69

psycho sexual

Question 70

stages of psycho sexual development

Answer 70

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

Question 71

pleasure gained by controlling one’s bowels - If potty training is tough, child will become anally retentive. Thus, as an adult, one will become obsessed with organization and control of environment.

Answer 71

anal stage

Question 72

pleasure gained by feeding - If not successfully weaned, child will become orally fixed. Thus, as an adult, one may drink too much, smoke too much, etc.

Answer 72

oral stage

Question 73

pleasure gained by exploring one’s body - Stifling this stage may result in poor body image or inappropriate body image.
children go through a period where they unconsciously desire their opposite-sex partner (the Oedipus complex in males). During this time, children form a bond with the parent that they are jealous of because of their unconscious fear of what might happen.

Answer 73

phallic stage

Question 74

focus moves away from one area

Answer 74

latency stage

Question 75

Mature sexuality.

Answer 75

genital stage

Question 76

crtiques of freud’s theory

Answer 76

does not have any real empirical support. Tests of his theories using modern scientific techniques like experiments and correlational studies have yielded little support for these ideas.

Question 77

believed that a collective unconsciousness connects all cultures, and he supported this theory by showing that the same types of figures and ideas appear in the stories and legends of many different cultures.
He called these archetypes; some examples are The Great Mother, The Wise Old Man, The Mentor, and The Trickster. being in touch with the archetypes within us is important to a healthy personality. For example, women may experience their masculine side and men, their feminine tendencies, in appropriate situations. Persona is the image we present to others. Your real self can be very different from the persona that you allow others to see. He suggested that when the persona and the real self were substantially different, serious anxieties and emotional problems could occur.

Answer 77

Carl Jung - collective unconcsiousness

Question 78

developed the concept of the inferiority complex. He believed we are all born with feelings of inferiority. Striving for superiority is the main motivational force in the development of personality. We do this by actively developing talents, working towards improvement, and learning to cope with any weaknesses.

Answer 78

alfred adler

Question 79

stressed importance of childhood anxiety and countered Freud’s view of women as the weaker sex. She agreed with Freud that childhood experiences play a large role in the development of personality, but she believed that it was social influences rather than sexual drives that were most important.
Anxiety could be overcome by learning to adjust to and cope with the social world. She said that people suffering from basic anxiety move toward, away from, or against people, which can a problems if extreme.

Answer 79

karen horney

Question 80

personality consists of a collection of traits or personality characteristics. People vary on traits such as introversion/extroversion, aggression, talkativeness, etc. Each person is born or learns behavior patterns that represent these traits - Eysenck

Answer 80

trait theorists

Question 81

humans are born inherently good. What drives them is the goal of self-actualization. Self-actualization is the achievement of one’s personal best. To achieve self-actualization, we strive towards becoming better people. So the goal becomes being the best person one can be. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Answer 81

humanistic theories of personality

Question 82

personality is an explanatory fiction. Rather, what is called “personality” is really a collection of behaviors. We learn patterns of behaviors through the traditional strategies of reinforcement and punishment, just like we learn everything else. Personality is just a description of behaviors under certain environmental circumstances. A learning theorist would believe that we are born with a blank slate and that experience is the key to personality.

Answer 82

behavioral/learning theories of personality

Question 83

personality is an explanatory fiction. Rather, what is called “personality” is really a collection of behaviors. We learn patterns of behaviors through the traditional strategies of reinforcement and punishment, just like we learn everything else. Personality is just a description of behaviors under certain environmental circumstances. A learning theorist would believe that we are born with a blank slate and that experience is the key to personality.

Answer 83

behavioral/learning theories of personality

Question 84

consider behaviorism and _______’s work when you see the word “reinforced.” introverts could become extroverts if properly reinforced.

Answer 84

skinner

Question 85

components of motivation

Answer 85

motive, need, drive, incentive, emotions

Question 86

giving a reward for already desired behavior will reduce one’s aspiration to engage in that behavior

Answer 86

overjustification effect

Question 87

As arousal increases, the ability to form a habit or perform a task well also increases.
It gives you sufficient motivation. But that works only up to a certain point, known as the optimal level. As arousal surpasses that point, your performance begins to deteriorate.

Answer 87

Yerkes and dodson

Question 88

Hormone insulin converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop:
HUNGER INCREASES

Answer 88

glucose

Question 89

brings on Hunger.

Answer 89

lateral

Question 90

surpresses hunger

Answer 90

ventromedial

Question 91

Goal oriented Leadership that sets standards & organizes work.

Answer 91

task leadership

Question 92

Group oriented Leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict & offers support.

Answer 92

social leadership

Question 93

studies on delayed gratification; a child was offered a choice between one small reward provided immediately or two small rewards. hildren who were able to wait longer for the preferred rewards tended to have better life outcomes:
SAT scores, educational attainment, body mass index (BMI), & other life measures.

Answer 93

standford marshmallow experiment - walter mischel

Question 94

The Sexual Response Cycle (4 Stages)
Excitement Phase
Plateau Phase
Orgasm
Resolution Phase

Answer 94

masters and johnson

Question 95

Inputs to subcortical centers automatically evoke facial expressions associated with certain emotions, & facial muscles then feed signals to the cortex that help it recognize the emotion that one is experiencing.

Answer 95

facial feedback hypothesis

Question 96

Plays a central role in the acquisition of conditioned fears. it lies at the core of a complex set of neural circuits that process emotion. Sensory inputs capable of eliciting emotions arrive in the thalamus.

Answer 96

Amygdala

Question 97

found that people in highly contrasting cultures showed fair agreement on the emotions portrayed in these photos.
Consensus across cultures suggests that facial expressions of emotions may be universal & that they have a strong biological basis.

Answer 97

ekman and friesen

Question 98

Norms that regulate appropriate expression of emotions. They prescribe when, how, & to whom people can show various emotions. These norms vary from one culture to another (Ekman)

Answer 98

Display rules

Question 99

Desired results obtained through hostile means.
Motivated by something other than hostility:
Attention
Acquire resources
Advance a cause

Answer 99

intrumental aggression

Question 100

Striking out against someone or something in anger or frustration. Genuinely wanting to hurt someone.

Answer 100

hostile aggression

Question 101

Increase in electrical conductivity of the skin; occurs when sweat glands increase their activity.

Answer 101

galvanic skin response

Question 102

Connection between emotion & autonomic arousal provides the basis for the polygraph, or lie detector, a device that records autonomic fluctuations (heart rate, blood pressure, gsr) while a subject is questioned.

Answer 102

polygraph (emotion detector)

Question 103

Used factor analysis to create a simple, 5-factor model of personality. (OCEAN)

Answer 103

Mccrae and costa

Question 104

Described personality in terms of fundamental traits, or characteristic patterns of behavior or dispositions to feel or act in a certain way. 3 Main traits:
Cardinal trait
Central trait
Secondary trait

Answer 104

gordon allport

Question 105

characteristic or feature so important that a person is identified by it
Ex, Scrooge in “A Christmas Carol”

Answer 105

cardinal trait

Question 106

traits that make us predictable in most situations
Ex, He’s a flirt or She is shy

Answer 106

central trait

Question 107

trait that conveys our preferences to items like music or food.
Ex, Rap Music & Chinese food

Answer 107

secondary trait

Question 108

16 Personality Factors (16PF) that he believed made up the building blocks of each individual’s personality. Everyone has the same 16 characteristics - to varying degrees.

Answer 108

Raymond Cattel

Question 109

Extraversion vs. Introversion
Extraversion - sociable, outgoing, active, and lively person
Introversion - thoughtful, reserved, & quiet
Emotional Stability vs. Instability
Stability - easy-going, relaxed, well-adjusted and even-tempered
Instability - moody, anxious, and restless

Answer 109

Eysenck

Question 110

trait vs type theory

Answer 110

Traits: Quantitative differences among people.
How much of each trait does the person have that unique combination makes up personality.
Types: Qualitative differences between people.
More like putting people into categories.

Question 111

Our beliefs about what causes our actions then influence our behaviors & attitudes.
(locus on control)

Answer 111

rotter

Question 112

Believes reinforcements are contingent upon own behavior - you make things happen

Answer 112

internal locus of control

Question 113

Believes reinforcements are not contingent upon own behavior - things happen to you

Answer 113

external locus of control

Question 114

Most widely used projective test. Set of 10 inkblots was designed by Hermann Rorschach. Seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Answer 114

rorsach

Question 115

Projective psychological test.
Assert that a person’s responses reveal underlying motives, concerns, & the way they see the social world through stories they make up about ambiguous pictures.

Answer 115

TAT

Question 116

reliability issue of projective tests

Answer 116

may misdiagnose a normal person as having a disorder.

Question 117

validity issue of projective tests

Answer 117

Even trained raters evaluating the same patient can come up with different interpretations.

Question 118

Frequently used clinical testing instrument
One of the most researched psychological tests in existence. While the____ is not a perfect test, but it remains a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. Developed to identify “abnormal” personality tendencies. Scored objectively - Remember that objectively does not equal validity, as some people have learned how to “fool” the test.

Answer 118

MMPI-2 - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Question 119

Response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a pleasant stimulus.

Answer 119

positive reinforcement

Question 120

People’s characteristic response tendencies are shaped by reinforcers & other consequences that follow behavior. Thus, if your joking around leads to attention & compliments, your tendency to be witty & humorous will be strengthened.

Answer 120

skinner

Question 121

Response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.

Answer 121

negative reinforcement

Question 122

Emphasized the importance of social learning, or learning through observation - self-efficacy, or our own beliefs in our abilities. “people are self-organizing, proactive, self reflecting, & self-regulating”
Thus, people routinely attempt to influence their life circumstances & their outcomes.

Answer 122

albert bandura

Question 123

According to this notion, the environment does determine behavior (as Skinner argued). However, behavior also determines the environment.

Answer 123

reciprocal determinism

Question 124

Learning creates expectancies that guide behavior

Answer 124

Rotter’s Expectancy Theory

Question 125

A person’s inherent qualities of mind & character. Influence behavior only in relevant situations. Can lead to behaviors that alter situations which promotes other behaviors. People choose to be in situations that are in accord with them. They are more important in some situations than in others.

Answer 125

personal dispositions

Question 126

Freud used a technique to untap the unconscious by having patients say whatever came to their mind.

Answer 126

free association

Question 127

Symbolic meaning of dream images, what your unconscious mind is thinking.

Answer 127

latent content