Motivation and emotion part 1

Question 1

What is motivation?

Answer 1

Motivation is the driving force of human behaviour: leads us to pursue some things and avoid others

We usually have a goal in mind. We don’t wander around aimlessly (we need motivation to survive) → goal-directed behaviour

Question 2

Motives are the _____ of behaviour. Goals are ____ a person wants to do, achieve, or become.

Answer 2

WHY

WHAT

Question 3

Motivation: Drive theories?

Answer 3

Drive Theories

Explains motivation in terms of a “drive”

Looks at internal tension (discomfort that we want to relieve, reduce)

Drive - internal state of tension (unpleasant, uncomfortable) that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension

E.g., thirst creates a tension that we want to reduce and that creates a motivational drive to engage in an action to find and drink fluids so that we are no longer thirsty

Related to the concept of homeostasis: physiological equilibrium (e.g., well rested, satiated)

Question 4

Why are some issues with drive theories?

Answer 4

Does not explain ALL motivation. Not always looking to reduce internal tension
Some motives do not involve homeostasis: e.g., “thirst for knowledge”
Also can have motivation without drive. E.g., no drive for hunger but want ice cream anyways

Question 5

Motivation: Incentive theories? Do we go after EVERY reward?

Answer 5

Incentive Theories

Incentive theories hold that motivation is regulated by external stimuli

“Incentive” - external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour

E.g., ice cream, money, an A, etc (outside of us, no internal tension, but a reward that we want out in the world that will give us some kind of pleasure)

Motivation to attain rewards and avoid punishment can explain behaviour
_________________________________________

We DON’T go after EVERY reward…

Expectancy-value models (considers reality),

I) expectancy of chances of attaining the incentive;
II) the value of the incentive

E.g., Motivation to pursue a promotion at work will depend on your estimate that you can get the promotion (expectancy) and on how appealing the promotion is (value)

Question 6

Are drive theories and incentive theories push or pull theories?

Answer 6

Drive theories = Push

Incentive theories = Pull

Question 7

Which theory is compared and related to the principle of homeostasis and biological basis?

Answer 7

Drive Theory

Question 8

Motivation: Evolutionary theories?

Answer 8

Natural selection favours behaviours that maximize reproductive success (e.g., achievement, dominance, aggression, sex drive)

Motives best understood when we consider how they solve problems for our hunter-gatherer ancestors

If dominance is a crucial motive for species, then it provides a reproductive or survival advantage

If affiliation/belongingness is a crucial motive for a species, then it provides a reproductive or survival advantage

Question 9

Motivation: Self-Determination Theory? Explain Inherent Growth Tendencies along with Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation. Explain The Candle Problem along with the Over-Justification Effect.

Answer 9

We do NOT need to always be fueled by biological drives or external incentives

PARADOX: rewarding people for performing a behaviour does not necessarily result in an increase of the behaviour.

Inherent growth tendencies: humans are naturally active & seek opportunities to learn and grow

Distinguishes between 2 types of motivation: Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Extrinsic Motivation: Behaviour is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise

Intrinsic Motivation: Engage in a Behaviour because it is personally rewarding, not for an external reward (singing for example)

THE CANDLE PROBLEM:

• Experimental condition ($$$ if completed quickly) slower
• Monetary reward compromised creativity and enjoyment
• Didn’t have intrinsic motivation but instead wanted reward

The Over-justification Effect:

• When external incentives (e.g., money) decrease a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task
• If no intrinsic motivation, then reward is likely not to decrease motivation to perform the task

Video: give reward for good reason, for motivation. Don’t give rewards because someone has simply finished the task. Reward competence, not completence

Question 10

Explain Brain Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What brain structure in the hypothalamus play a role in REGULATING hunger? Which group of neurons capture hunger signals?

Answer 10

Experience of hunger controlled by brain, specifically the hypothalamus (regulates a variety of biological needs for survival)

Paraventricular nucleus - found in hypothalamus and plays a role in regulating hunger

Arcuate nucleus - group of neurons that capture hunger signals and others that respond to satiation signals

Question 11

If you damage the middle-region hyperaphagia (*ventromedial hypothalamus), what will happen to eating patterns?

Answer 11

Eat large quantities of food and become obese

Question 12

If you damage the outer region-aphasia (*lateral hypothalamus), what will happen to eating patterns?

Answer 12

Will die unless force fed

Question 13

Explain Digestive Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What is the biological process? What is Glucostatic Theory?

Answer 13

Biological Process:

• sensitive to expansion of stomach walls
• Nerves carry message to the brain that no more food needs to be consumed (there are neurons that seem to be sensitive to the quality or content of the food we’ve eaten)

Glucostatic Theory:

• Neurons sensitive to glucose levels in the blood
• When levels drop, we feel hungry
  However, glucose levels don’t fluctuate that quickly

Question 14

Explain Hormonal Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What is Ghrelin?

Answer 14

after the body goes without food, the stomach secretes this hormone, which causes the stomach contractions and promotes hunger

Question 15

Explain Hormonal Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What is CCK?

Answer 15

after food is consumed, the upper intestine releases this hormone that delivers satiety signals to the brain

Question 16

Explain Hormonal Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What is Leptin?

Answer 16

contributes to longer-term regulation of hunger; ministers fat deposits in the body and communicates with the hypothalamus, causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are high

Question 17

Explain Hormonal Regulation of Hunger and Eating. What is Insulin?

Answer 17

secreted by pancreas; sensitive to body’s fat stores

Question 18

Explain the Limbic System in Hunger and Eating.

Answer 18

Craving for food (sweet, salty) controlled by limbic system (brain region involved in reward)
When shown images of good tasting food and brain imaging (overweight people more activity vs. normal weight people)

Question 19

Explain the three factors of food availability on Environmental Factors of Hunger and Eating.

Answer 19

• Palpability - the better it tastes, the more we eat (not limited to humans)
• Quantity available - people tend to eat what is put in front of them; the more they are served, the more they eat; concentrate on the unit vs quantity? 45% more!!!
• Variety - increased consumption when there is greater variety; sensory value decreases when eating a specific food (sensory specific satiety)

Question 20

what impact does the Presence of Others have on Hunger and Eating? What are Dyads?

Answer 20

Eat 44% more when with other vs alone (at least under certain conditions; influenced by “norms”)

The more present, the more we eat
Dyads - use each other as guides & eat similar amounts (people will pace themselves to be eating about the same amount of the other person when there are only two people, but in a group, it’s free-for-all (they eat a lot))

Women eat less when in the presence of an opposite sex person they do not know well

People oblivious to the impact of others on their eating

Question 21

What impact does the Presence of Others have on Hunger and Eating? What are Dyads?

Answer 21

Eat 44% more when with other vs alone (at least under certain conditions; influenced by “norms”)

The more present, the more we eat

Dyads (group of TWO people)- use each other as GUIDES & eat similar amounts (people will pace themselves to be eating about the same amount of the other person when there are only two people

• but in a group, it’s free-for-all (they eat a lot))

Women eat less when in the presence of an opposite sex person they do not know well

People oblivious to the impact of others on their eating

Question 22

What impact does Stress have on Hunger and Eating? Explain Restrained eaters and how they can become disinhibited.

Answer 22

some eat more, some less

Estimates suggests that roughly 40-50% of people increase food consumption in times of stress

Fatty and sweets (we go after things that our limbic system (reward system) responds to, stuff that makes us feel good and releases dopamine) when we’re stressed
_________________________________________

Dieters, non-dieters → Dietary restraint can lead to obesity (chronic eaters are restrained eaters - they consciously work overtime to control, their eating impulses and feel guilty when they fail. They go hungry much of the time and are constantly thinking about food. When their cognitive control is disrupted, they can become disinhibited and eat to excess. Most common source of disinhibition is when they think they have cheated on their diet and think “I’ve already blown it” and then proceed to eat a large meal. Restrained eaters tend to prepare for planned diets by overeating which can contribute to obesity)

Question 23

What impact do Learned Preferences/Habits have on Hunger and Eating?

Answer 23

Culturally dependent

Repeated exposure and liking (bologna sandwich with ketchup example)

some of it is innate and some we pick up over time (learned)

Question 24

Explain The Roots of Obesity and its epidemic.

Answer 24

Obesity is the condition of being overweight

Defined as: BMI > 30
BMI= Weight (kg)/ Height (m^2)

INCREASING and is considered an epidemic

Dramatic increase prevalence of obesity → over the course of history, most humans lived in environments characterized by fierce competition and limited food resources so they evolved a propensity to consume more food than immediately necessary because food may not be available later. In our now industrialized societies, our evolved tendency to overeat leads to obesity

Obesity can be the cause of many health problems (including Alzheimer’s) and elevates one’s mortality risk

Question 25

What are the two causes of obesity?

Answer 25

Genetic predisposition

Excessive eating and inadequate exercise

Question 26

What defends against weight loss? Explain why this occurs.

Answer 26

homeostatic mechanisms defend against weight loss

Research:
After significant weight loss, individuals’ energy expenditures tend to decline (burn calories more slowly), which fosters weight gain

Reduced fat stores result in reduced levels of leptin; low leptin fuels increased hunger and dampens satiety signals

Gaining weight not easy also

Question 27

Explain Set-Point Theory.

Answer 27

Set-point theory proposes that the body monitors FAT-CELL LEVELS to keep them (and weight) fairly stable

Set point is individuals’ natural point of stability for weight

Viewed as a NARROW RANGE around a point

Can be genetically predisposed and set from our early childhood experiences

We develop fat cells from our youth to our teenage years, we don’t develop any more after that (they start to get bigger and fuller)

If we eat a lot of high fat foods during our childhood, we’re more likely to have a lot of fat cells and enlarged fat cells (shown in people who are obese) vs people who have less fat cells in their body

When you lose weight, you don’t lose fat cells, they just get smaller

If someone who is obese is trying to lose weight, they have a lot more fat cells that are deprived than people of a normal weight (gives almost a feeling of starvation)

When fat stores dip below a crucial level, hunger increases and metabolism decreases

Purely biologically based theory of obesity & weight loss

Question 28

Explain Settling Point Theory.

Answer 28

Weight loss and gain related to patterns of diet and physical exercise that people “settle” into as habits

Habits based on genetic predisposition, learning, environmental cues

Weight stays “around” where these factors reach an equilibrium (consider food intake, energy expenditure)

WE CAN CHANGE the set point where we settle, we’re not stuck forever in a particular range (this depends on a number of factors)