Motivation And Emotion Flashcards
Motivation
The driving force behind behaviour that leads us to pursue some things and not others.
Psychodynamic perspective of motivation (4 points)
- Emphasises the biological basis of motivations reflecting animal heritage
- Freud argued that we are motivated by internal tension states (drives) that build up until satisfied
- Two basic drives = sex (love, lust, intimacy) and aggression (control, mastery)
- Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue for: need for relatedness to others and the need for self esteem
Unconscious motivation (3 points)
- Freud argued that a person can be unaware of their own motives for their behaviours
- Motivation can be unconscious (implicit) and conscious (explicit) at the same time
- Unconscious motivation can be assessed using protective tests in which a person describes a vague stimulus - eg. Ink blot test
Behaviourist perspective of motivation (5 points)
- Behaviours are governed by the environment
- Needs reflect a requirement such as food and water
- Drives are states of arousal that accompany an unfulfilled need (eg. Hunger/thirst)
- Drive reduction theory argues that we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drives.
- Drives can be “primary”.
Cognitive perspective of motivation:
- expectancy value theory
- outcomes are…
- conscious goals….
- “Expectancy - value theory” = motivation is a function of the value people place on an outcome AND the extent to which they think they can achieve it
- Outcomes are viewed as goals which are established through social learning
- Conscious goals regulate much of human behaviour
Drive reduction theory/cycle (5 steps with explanations between each)
Homeostasis (state of biological equilibrium)
- Biological need occurs
Biological need = food/water
- Need gives rise to drive
Drive = internal state of tension
- Organism motivated to satisfy drive
Goal directed behaviour (action taken)
- Drive reduced
Need satisfied (hunger/thirst relieved)
- Balance restored
> > > > > back to homeostasis
Components of cognitive theory of motivation
- intrinsic motivation
- self determination theory
- implicit motives
• Intrinsic motivation: refers to the enjoyment of and interest in a behaviour for its own sake
• Self determination theory: 3 innate needs = competence, autonomy, relatedness.
Fulfilment increases intrinsic motivation
• Implicit motives: are those which are activated and expressed outside of conscious awareness
Humanistic perspective of motivation (1 theory with 5 parts)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
(In order of most important)
- physiological (hunger/thirst)
- safety (housing/money)
- love/belongingness (intimacy)
- esteem (respect from peers)
- self actualisation (creative art/service to others)
Evolutionary perspective to motivation (3)
- Early theorists suggested behaviour was governed by INSTINCTS: fixed patterns of behaviour produced without learning.
- Key assumption is that motivational systems serve functions that may have evolved independently in response to particular evolutionary pressures.
- Contemporary theorists argue that there are multiple motivational systems related to SURVIVAL and REPRODUCTION
Eating
Definition and process
Eating is a behaviour in which we consume food to supply energy, minerals and vitamins to the body.
Ingestion of food leads to a sequence of metabolic events:
• absorptive phase - food is ingested, energy is extracted and stored as either glycogen or fat.
• fasting phase - glycogen is covered to glucose for use by the body
Homeostasis
Definition and how eating is a part of homeostatic process
The tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the internal environment.
Eating is a part of a complex homeostatic process with:
- set points: biologically optimal level system tries to maintain
- feedback mechanisms: e.g. Receptors to monitor level of sugar in blood
- corrective mechanisms: these restore system back to set point when needed.
What turns hunger on? (2 different things)
- Physiological hunger is caused by dropping levels of glucose and lipids in the bloodstream (detected by brain and liver).
- Hypothalamus plays a central role:
• lateral hypothalamus plays role in switching ‘on’ eating behaviour.
• ventromedial hypothalamus plays role in switching ‘off’ eating behaviour
How the role of hypothalamus in eating came to be known
Decades ago, researchers began studying the roles of the ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus in eating.
Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus can lead to obesity in rats.
External cues in eating (4)
Things that affect how much/if people eat
- food palatability: tasty foods can motivate eating
- food variety: exposure to the same food day after day can reduce intake
- time of the day: if eating is at the same time each day, conditioning can occur.
- presence of others: meal size increases as the group size increases.
Obesity (definition and 2 x types of consequences)
Obesity is defined as a body weight of 15% or more above the ideal for ones height and age.
Consequences of obesity:
Physical - heart disease, diabetes, stroke, early mortality.
Psychological - negative stereotypes about the obese, discrimination, difficulty in relationships, low self esteem.
Biology and sexual motivation:
The effects hormone have on nervous system and behaviour (2)
- organisational effects
- activation effects
ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTS: prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural circuits in brain and spinal cord
ACTIVATION EFFECTS: alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the intensity of a behaviour that is modulated by that hormone.
Cultures effect on sexual motivation (+ example)
Anthropological studies show wide cultural variation in sexual acts and what behaviour is appropriate.
E.g. - western culture view the male as having greater sexual needs, whereas other cultures hold the opposite view.
Sexual orientation (definition)
Homosexuality (definition)
2 x study findings on sexual orientation
Sexual orientation is the enduring direction of attraction for a sexual partner.
Homosexuality: attraction for a person of the same sex.
- Twin studies document a biological basis for homosexuality.
- Neuroanatomical differences between homosexual and heterosexual men.
Psychosocial motives:
- basis
- 2 types of motives
- 2 major clusters of goals
- less biological but rooted in evolution
- personal and interpersonal motives (eg. Achievement, intimacy etc.)
- two major clusters of goals people pursue:
- relatedness: connectedness with others
- agency: motives for self orientated goals
Needs for relatedness:
- attachment motivation (definition)
- intimacy (definition)
- affiliation (definition in terms of ones ‘need for relatedness’)
Attachment motivation refers to the desire for physical and psychological proximity to another (comfort and pleasure).
Intimacy is closeness characterised by self disclosure, warmth and mutual caring (adult relationships).
Affiliation is the interaction with friends or acquaintances
Achievement motivation
Meaning + characteristics
“Need for achievement” refers to the need to do well, to succeed and to avoid failure.
Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to:
- choose moderately difficult tasks
- enjoy being challenged
- avoid failure
- work more persistently
- enjoy success
Performance goals
3 different types of performance goals
Performance goals are motives to achieve a particular outcome.
These 3 types of goals predict different outcomes:
Performance approach goals = motivated to attain goal
Performance avoidance goals = motivated by fear of not attaining goal
Mastery goals = motives to increase skills and competencies
Emotion
Definition and 3 components
Emotion is an evaluative response to a situation that typically includes:
- physiological arousal
- subjective experience
- behavioural or emotional expression
Can be positive or negative feeling or response
James-Lange theory of emotion
(3 steps with example)
AND
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
(3 parts - similar example)
Emotion inducing stimulus (dog)
> > (then)
Behavioural and bodily responses (pounding heart/running)
> > (then)
Subjective interpretation of arousal as emotional
Emotion inducing stimulus (dog)
> > > > >
Behavioural and bodily responses (pounding heart and running)
OR
experienced emotion
Subjective experience - bell curve
Explain the bell curve - 2 ends
Emotional intensity varies along a bell curve:
Upper end: are people with severe personality disorders (too intense anger and sadness)
Lower end: are people who appear to not have emotional states (alexithymia - a condition which a person does not experience emotional states)
Feeling happy/happiness
Definition + characteristics (3)
Happiness is an emotional state characterised by a positive valence.
Research shows that happiness is:
• related to cultural values (highest in individualistic cultures, lowest in collectivist cultures)
• highly correlated to with number of uninterrupted years of democracy
• NOT related to gender, age or wealth.
Facial expressions and emotion
Link?
Purpose of facial expressions (3)
Culture and facial expressions
- 6 multicultural expressions
- display rules (definition)
There is an evolutionary link between the experience of emotion and facial expression of emotion.
Facial expressions serve to inform others of our emotional state.
Different facial expressions are associated with different emotions.
Facial expressions can alter emotional experience.
Cross cultural studies have identified six facial expressions recognised by people of every culture:
Surprise, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness.
Display rules = Emotional displays considered appropriate within a specific culture.
Gender and emotional expression
How men and women differ?
Why there’s differences?
Women: experience more intense emotional states
- are better able to read emotional cues in others
- express emotions more intensely and openly than men
Gender differences in emotional expression may reflect differing socialisation patterns.
Taxonomy of emotions:
Common 5
Additional emotional states (8)
Common 5 states of emotion:
Anger, fear, happiness, sadness and disgust.
Additional emotional states include: surprise, contempt, shame, guilt, joy, trust, interest and anticipation.
Positive and negative affect (emotions have on behaviour)
Positive affect: pleasant emotions, drives APPROACH type behaviour.
Negative affect: unpleasant emotions, drives AVOIDANT type behaviour.
- people who experience one negative emotion (eg. Anxiety) tend to experience others (eg. Sadness, guilt)
Neuropsychology of emotions
(3 main areas + what they do)
- hypothalamus
- limbic system/amygdala
- cortex
Hypothalamus: link in circuit that converts emotional signals into automatic and endocrine responses.
Limbic system/amygdala: plays central role in linking sensory stimuli with feelings
Cortex: allows assessment of whether stimulus is safe or not, interpretation of meaning of peripheral responses (eg. Dry mouth) and regulation of facial displays.
Psychodynamic perspective of emotion (3 points)
- people can be unconscious of their own emotional experience.
- unconscious emotional processes can influence thought, behaviour and health.
- we regularly delude ourselves about our abilities and attributes to avoid unpleasant emotional experiences.
Cognitive perspective of emotion
3 points
- Schachter and Singer (1962): cognitive judgements (attributions) are a critical part of emotional experience
- later research has shown that cognitive appraisals influence emotion
- mood and emotion can affect thought and memory
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
2 points + 4 step model
• emotions involve 2 factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretations
• argued that a cognitive judgement or attribution is crucial to emotional experience
= people must interpret their arousal (eg. Cut off by car) in order to experience a specific emotion
4 steps:
Emotion inducing stimulus
Physiological arousal
Cognitive interpretation of arousal
Emotion
Evolutionary perspective of emotion
4 points
- emotions serve an adaptive purpose (Darwin)
- emotions serve as important signals to other members of the species
- basic emotional expressions are wired into the organism and are recognised cross culturally
- the simulators in the facial expressions (such as anger) across different species show their common evolutionary roots
