Moral Approaches Flashcards
All 3 Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato & Aristotle were invested in the notion & tradition of virtue and the importance of
Self and other
Who is considered to be the father of modern ethics?
Aristotle, because of his book in Nichomachean ethics
What is virtue ethics and why was it only developed and directed towards men?
It was essentially a self help guide on how to become a statesman and discharge civic duties. Women and slaves weren’t considered because they were thought to be unimportant and unfit for public office
Socrates proposed that 1________, and is considered to be the front runner of the concept of 2 ______.
1 virtue is knowledge
2 know thyself
The basis of Socrates’ virtue ethics was
Know thyself
Who is the successor to Socrates?
Plato
Plato developed his virtue theory & suggested they could be overarched by 4 main virtues. What are Plato’s 4 virtues?
Courage/fortitude
Temperance (self restraint)
Justice
Prudence/wisdom
Which of Plato’s 4 virtues was considered the most important in Greek philosophy?
Prudence/wisdom because it was rooted in the notion of “self”
Aristotle confirmed the Greek philosophical premise of the triad of human existence. HEAD HEART AND SOUL, best interpreted as:
Reason, emotion and mysticism
Aristotle proposed that virtues were acquired through:
Mentorship. Meaning virtue is a consequence of training
Aristotle proposed that virtue is a character trait of excellence (aretai) that is required to achieve “eudaimonia” (a state of ultimate happiness or well-being).
What is the opposite of virtue?
Vice.
Aristotelian virtue theory deals a lot with
“Right”.
Becoming the ‘right’ person.
Doing the ‘right’ thing.
For the ‘right’ reason.
At the ‘right’ time.
Aristotle proposed that virtues were dualistic in nature. They could either be (briefly describe them):
Moral or intellectual.
Moral virtues = these virtues are based in emotion and are consequence of HABIT. Difficult to measure.
Intellectual virtues = these virtues are based in the rational and are a consequence of PRACTISE. Easily measured.
Give 3 examples of moral virtue
Courage
Generosity
Wittiness
Give 3 examples of intellectual virtue
Academic
Athlete
Concert pianist
What type of virtue can be measured from academic undergrad and postgrad qualifications
Intellectual virtue
We can measure the intellectual virtue of an athlete by:
The number of medals they have won in their events
Aristotle was aware of the difficulties associated with measuring moral virtue. He realised that such a measurement depended on…
Balance
What is the golden mean?
A notion developed by Aristotle to measure moral virtue. Ultimately it is a mid-way point between two vices, that of excess and deficiency
Learn the golden mean table
What Aristotelian moral virtues have contemporary relevance and which ones have lost their relevance?
Contemporary relevance:
Resourcefulness, technical skill, judgement, scientific knowledge
Lost their relevance:
Liberality, magnificence
Virtue ethics originates from Greek philosophy and judged to be a form of…
NORMATIVE and CHARACTER-BASED ethics
Define intrinsic and extrinsic virtue, and provide examples of each
Intrinsic virtue = good in itself e.g. faith, activism
Extrinsic virtue = good for the sake of something else e.g. accountability, governance
Book by David Brooks looks at virtues in a contemporary sense. Name them and give examples of each:
Résumé virtues = wealth, fame, status
Eulogy virtues = kindness, bravery, honesty, faithfulness
Weaknesses of the virtue ethics approach
- Aristotelian virtues in their literal sense are no longer applicable e.g righteous indignation, magnificence
*Implies mentorship. How can we acquire virtues if we have no example?
*It’s relative. What is cowardice? What is wisdom? Interpretation of terms can change over time. What was once considered a moral virtue can almost the opposite over time. E.g successful capitalist
*Aristotelian virtue ethics is based on reality whereas 4IR is associated with technology
Strengths of the virtue ethics approach
*2000+ years and virtue theory still resonates and has modern relevance
*Original theory can extend beyond the individual to incorporate society, corporates, organisations, etc
*shared/common values and ways of doing things provides ‘meaning’ e.g. armed forces, religion, political parties, schools, families, etc
*Gender-based virtues identified with feminism and care ethics
*Could be argued the concept of ‘whistleblowing’ stems from a consciousness of moral virtue
Virtue ethics and engineering
*the ECSA (engineering council of South Africa) professional code of conduct is virtue based
*there is an expectation that engineers will acquire virtues in the workplace
*the goal of any engineering project should be ‘eudaimonia’ I.e to increase well-being
*engineers need a moral compass & virtue can help provide this
Utilitarian ethical tradition originated in the 18th century. Responded to the needs for social and legal reform. What does it focus on?
Focuses on outcomes and consequences. Philosophy calls this CONSEQUENTIALIST theory
Is utilitarianism a normative ethics approach?
Yes
Utilitarianism proposes that ethics can be motivated by what?
Feelings and emotions (relative) and not just reason (rational)
“Utilitarianism is regarded as a consequentialist ethic because the view counsels that in deciding whether an act, rule, policy or motive is morally ‘good’ we should look to see if it has ‘good’ consequences for all” - John Mizzoni: Ethics: The Basics
Utilitarianism accepts DUALISM exists in man kind. What does this refer to?
Dualism refers to our RATIONAL & EMOTIONAL nature
What concept can be associated with utilitarianism?
UNIVERSALISM that suggests that we can all FEEL THE SAME
Who is the father of utilitarianism?
Jeremy Bentham
Name a famous contemporary utilitarian
Peter Singer
Define the principle of utility
States that one ought to always do whatever will have the most utility for ALL those concerned.
THE GREATEST GOOD FOR THE GREATEST NUMBER. ONE FOR ALL.
Good refers to..
COMMON GOOD = usefulness, utility, more pleasure than pain
Does this mean painless?
No, it refers to the least pain.
The common good can be used in conjunction with what ethical concepts?
‘Flourishing’ or ‘well-being’
The notion of ‘common good’ comes with egalitarian overtones. What does this mean?
It assumes that ‘good’ is the same for everyone. What’s considered good by me isn’t necessarily considered good by you
What are the two types of utilitarianism?
Act utilitarianism
Rule utilitarianism
Define act and rule utilitarianism
Act = judge the moral worth of an action according to how well it generates the greatest good for the greatest number of people (considered to be an EXTREME position of little value)
Rule = judge the moral worth of an action by how well it conforms to moral rules that have been accepted according to the utilitarian standard. (Considered to be a LIMITED position that has value)
The difference between the two approaches (act and rule) can be summed up if one asks the question
“What if everyone did that?”
Utilitarianism proposes that feelings should not be disregarded but recognized. ALL LIFE HAS FEELINGS.
Strengths of utilitarian approach
• Aims to maximise utility/well-being/the common good of society
• The approach extends to all living creatures. Criteria used by Bentham “Can they Suffer?”
• Often takes into account the ‘bigger picture’ scope, not microscope
• Has been seen to be compatible with cost-benefit analysis
• Utilitarianism is a pragmatic approach, not just theoretical
Weaknesses of utilitarian approach
• Often difficult to know exactly what the consequences of an action will be
• The utility of the individual can be marginalised or even disregarded (greatest good for greatest number)
• WHO decides and WHAT measures are used? HOW is assessment made?
• Do we all feel the same pain? Are pain levels consistent or are they a function of biology and biography?
Deontology comes from the Greek word deon, meaning “duty”
Developed by Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) a German philosopher & his theory has become known as Kantian ethics.
Kantian ethics was originally developed to be applied to an individual, but has now extended to the workplace and society.
Kant was a philosopher who wanted to establish a moral philosophy that could have universal application and exist in the absence of
• Theology
• Metaphysics
• Physics
For Kant, morality wasn’t just about WHAT you do, it was also about WHY you do it
Kant considered moral principles to be a priori (independent of experience)
Kant proposed that we are all moral agents because…
We possess rationality and reason. Through this we have freedom/free will
Freedom means we have a choice in the actions we take. We can discern and choose RIGHT/WRONG. Meaning we are…
Independent moral agents.
Kant proposed that ONLY humankind had the unique ability to reason. Deontology can therefore be seen to be…
Anthropocentric
Does deontology apply to all living creatures?
No, only to humans because they are independent moral agents and have the unique capability of accepting DUTY otherwise referred to as RESPONSIBILITY or OBLIGATION
Define the 4 key terms in Kantian ethics
• Moral agent = a person with the capacity to act morally
• Maxim = rule/principle
• Will = the faculty of deciding, choosing or acting
• Imperative = command
Deontology is a philosophy that does not look at outcomes or consequences. What does this mean?
It means that deontology is a NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST philosophy
Kantian ethics focused on intentions/duties rather than consequences
What is the Kantian duty process?
Intention > action > consequence
Review table on page 11 of lecture 5
Name and briefly discuss Kant’s 3 maxims
1 Duty = an action has moral worth:value if it is done for the sake of duty
2 Universality (categorical imperative): an action is morally correct if it’s maxim can be willed as a universal law
3 Respect and Equality: we should always treat humanity, whether ourselves or others as an end in itself & never merely as a means to an end
Some of Kant’s writings:
“Act as if the maxim of your action was to become through your will a universal law”
“Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, never simply as a means but always as an end”
Kant developed a theory centered around 2 imperatives. Name them
Hypothetical imperative
Categorical imperative
Give a rundown on the concept of hypothetical imperatives
Based on ‘IF’ followed by a ‘THEN’ & represent duties that provide a means to an end. Not always strictly ethical.
If you want to stay healthy, THEN exercise etc etc
Because deontology is duty driven & not outcome based, when applied it isn’t always ethical.
We can reject hypothetical imperatives if they don’t resonate with us
Give a rundown on the concept of categorical imperatives
Refers to a command that does NOT allow for ifs, buts or maybes.
A categorical imperative is an absolutely binding duty!
E.g. it is ALWAYS your duty to tell the truth. It is ALWAYS your duty to report criminal activity etc.
A categorical imperative is a UNIVERSAL DUTY
What is one main problem with the categorical imperative?
It can sometimes be unethical. Let’s say your categorical imperative is to “always tell the truth”, sometimes telling the truth may get others hurt or killed
What is Kantian ethics incompatible with?
Capitalism. That is because capitalism is largely consequentialist/teleological driven.
What are some weaknesses of deontology?
• Completely ignores ‘feelings’. It suggests that feelings cloud things, and should be replaced with a sense of duty.
• Does not always see the ‘bigger picture’
• Only deals with humans and ignores other sentient life forms
• Consequences matter in the context of ethics, and deontology ignores this.
• Doesn’t resolve conflict of duties. As a female which duty comes first, that of wife, mother, daughter or employee?
• Doesn’t define how free we are, but says we have free will?
Strengths of deontology
• Proposes that there are universal standards of ethics requiring duties/responsibilities
• Has egalitarianism built into it. We are all moral agents.
• Consequences/outcomes do not make something morally right or wrong. The proposed intrinsic in deontology is duty.
• Doesn’t rely on religious belief. Kant proposed a universal moral standard that exists outside of spirituality.
• Doesn’t have self-interest at its core, rather respect for oneself and one’s fellow human beings
•Based on reason and rationality
RIGHTS ETHICS TRADITION
Give examples of how the tradition of rights has adapted through history (4):
Feudal system
Athenian citizenship
Class system
Political revolution
What is rights tradition about?
Rights tradition is aimed at universality and proposes that every human being had “fundamental rights”, human rights.
Define rights
“Human rights are the products of moral, social and political agreements between human beings”
“Modern rights ethics extends to the government, individual, society, work environment, natural environment, animals, children, vulnerable foetus and more”
Give a few points on rights and how they are different from ethics stance
Rights are basically ENTITLEMENTS.
Rights apply to everyone in every situation (UNIVERSALITY)
Rights are concerned with the idea of an IDEAL world
Rights can be legal or moral
Questions to be asked when viewing rights
• WHO - is alleged to have the right (patient, citizen; child, etc)
• WHAT - actions or objects do the rights pertain to? (The right to privacy, education, free speech, etc)
• WHY - the rights holder has the right. Are the reasons moral or legal?
• HOW - the right can be affected by the actions of the right holder (the right to basic education but the student always bunks school)
Rights at their most simple:
• Form - what internal structure does a right take? (Constitutional, international, etc)
• Structure - what do the rights do for those who have them?
John Locke is the philosopher associated with the rights tradition. He proposed that all humans have the ‘right’ to LIFE, LIBERTY & PROPERTY. (The latter refers to intellect)
John Stuart Mill whilst a utilitarian had this to say in his book ‘On Liberty’ about rights:
When we call anything a person’s right, we mean that he has a valid claim on society to protect him in the possession of it, either by the force of law or by that of education and opinion… to have a right, then, is I conceive, to have something which society ought to defend me in the possession of”.
Modern examples of rights:
• Constitutions such as the U.S. Declaration of Independence
• Our own SA Constitution
• Outline fundamental rights of citizens
• They are legally binding and can be challenged in court if not awarded
Quote by Eleanor Roosevelt when developing the universal declaration of human rights
The basic problem confronting the world today… is the preservation of human freedom for the individual and consequently for the society of which he is a part”
Speak on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
• It is the foundation of freedom, Justice and peace in the world
• Recognised inherent dignity & equal inalienable rights of all members of the human family
• Consists of civil & political rights (right to life, liberty, free speech, etc)
• Consists of social and cultural rights
5 basic human rights
- Right to Equality
- Freedom from Discrimination
- Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
- Freedom from Slavery
- Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment
What question does animal rights ask?
The question is not ‘can they reason?’ nor ‘can they talk’, but ‘can they suffer’?
What are environmental rights?
• New to the rights tradition, and speaks of relationships between humankind, the environment and the universe
• speaks to climate and covers conservation and preservation at local and international levels
Rights dualism
Rights cannot exist in isolation. There is also the expectation of responsibility that can cause ethical and moral tension. Recent examples would be:
• The right to ARV’s, but the personal responsibility for sexual conduct
• The right to municipal services, but the responsibility for paying municipal bills
• The right to free speech, the responsibility not to take part in hate speech
• The right to bear arms, the responsibility to keep them in a gun safe when not in use and be of sound mind
Weaknesses of the rights approach:
• Legislation does not ensure rights
• Rights do not always coincide with Justice
• Geared to minimum standards not maximum
• Responsibility is often assumed
• Applies to signatory countries, what about the others?
Strengths of the rights approach:
• Universality of rights
• Provides minimum standards
• Can be actively challenged and changed
• In many cases provided a legal guarantee of/for moral status
• An active form of ethics and can be used together with other ethical approaches
• Cause non-signatories who breech code to be challenged
