montgomery Flashcards
emancipation proclamation 1863 + 13th amendment 1965
passed by abraham lincoln, ended slavery
14th amendment
equal rights + protection
15th amendment
equal voting rights
jim crow laws
named after racist stereotype, 19th century rules + regulations that codified prejudice, dehumanisation and discrimination against blacks
-created separate + unequal services, employment + housing for african americans
-denied decent standard of education, forced to use inferior public services, denied bank loans + service in restaurants/hotels
polling taxes
tax necessary to vote, meant poor black people could not afford to vote
literacy tests
made deliberately difficult
why did black people struggle to vote
-polling taxes
-literacy tests
-restrictions on registration for blacks
-fear -> black people who tried to vote were intimidated or assaulted e.g. kkk, democratic party, lynchings, emmet till
NAACP
national association for the advancement of coloured people: set up after ww2, legal defence fund began taking court cases challenging the legality of various aspects of the segregation system
black soldiers coming back from ww2
not prepared to accept discrimination at home after fighting for others’ freedom in europe
-coincided with increase in black people attending college (GI bill) -> new generation of black leaders unwilling to accept oppression
Truman beginnings of desegregation
supported the CRM, desegregated the army and federal employment policies
economic prosperity
people enjoyed high standard of living -> more willing to accept reform, believed US could afford it
mass media and the growth of the CRM
north could no longer ignore realities of life in the south -> impact of tv
plessy v. ferguson 1896
ruled that segregation was legal under doctrine of ‘separate but equal’
-blacks could be forced to use different facilities as long as they were equal quality
brown v. board of education 1954
-NAACP gave evidence that black students received inferior schooling
-supreme court ruled that segregation in education was unconstitutional -> ordered desegregation of schooling
-created legal basis for further desegregation
-did not bring immediate desegregation, instead ‘massive resistance’ -> many schools closed rather than integrate
browder v. gayle 1956
ruled bus segregation was unconstitutional after MBB
boynton v. virginia 1960
banned segregation on interstate bus terminals after freedom rides
loving v. virginia 1967
ruled that prohibition of interracial marriage was unconstitutional
montgomery
capital of alabama
population of montgomery 1955
70,000 white, 50,000 black
discrimination in montgomery
-strictly divided along colour lines
-separate water fountains, park benches, public bathrooms
-not allowed to sit with whites in restaurants/cinemas
% of local bus company’s rev. from black people
75%
segregation on buses
-sit at back of bus
-first 10 rows reserved for whites
-couldn’t sit beside white person or parallel to them
-had to give up seats to whites
-had to buy ticket at front of bus then enter through the back -> driver sometimes drove off without them
-only white drivers employed
claudette colvin
march 1955, colvin arrested for refusing to give up seat for white passenger.
-only 15 and pregnant (relationship with married man)
-previous run ins with the law
-NAACP paid bail -> she wasn’t an ideal ‘test case’
rosa parks
-42yo married seamstress
-local NAACP secretary
-active in politics since 1930s + protested scottsboro boys case
-became one of the few black people allowed to vote in the state
-1954 attended training session for civil rights activists
quote
‘as late as the 1990s, nearly 90% of suburban whites lived in communities with non-white populations less than 1%’
rosa parks incident
1 dec 1955, refused to give up seat to white passenger when ordered to by bus driver
-arrested, appeared in court on 5 dec + charged $10
-approached by E.D Nixon (montgomery NAACP leader) and Jo Ann Robinson (WPC leader) about using her as ‘test case’. agreed
original boycott
-organised for day of parks’ trial
-35,000 leaflets distributed by WPC (women’s political council)
-black preachers promoted boycott
-MIA set up under leadership of mlk to run boycott
WPC
women’s political council
-distributed 35,000 leaflets to promote boycott
MIA
montgomery improvement association
-set up to run boycott
-under leadership of mlk -> newly arrived minister from georgia, no baggage with local authorities
demands of the boycotters
-boycotters decided to continue until full end to segregation
-white city leaders entered into negotiations
-3 moderate demands: fixed black and white section, employment of black bus drivers, treatment of all passengers with courtesy
-> rejected, decided to continue boycott until segregation completely ended
church network
-black church network key to organising, reverends MLK and ralph abernathy took leading roles
carpooling
organised to bring people to and from work.
-some white business owners also brought their employees to work
black taxi drivers
reduced fares to bus fares (10c)
-council threatened to take away licenses
-MIA raised $30,000 to subsidise drivers
-also organised new insurance (lloyd’s in london) when whites refused to insure
walking to work
many blacks had to walk up to 2 hours to work for a year
mass church meetings
regularly organised to build bonds in community, establish support network, organise collections to pay for legal charges of those arrested on trivial charges
power of mass protest
-MIA highlighted importance + power of organised mass protest
-emphasised african american community’s economic power
-many business owners that relied on black workers pushed city leaders to compromise
peaceful protest
MLK insisted on peaceful protest -> inspired by christian ideals and gandhi
- ‘we must use the weapon of love. we must have compassion and understanding for those who hate us’
-‘moral highground’, made it difficult for whites to demonise them
-garnered sympathy from moderates in alabama and north
-boycott showed what could be achieved with diciplined nonviolence -> defined CRM for next 10 years
mlk quote about nonviolence
crowd of 300 blacks gathered outside his home when it was attacked:
- ‘if you have weapons, take them home . . . we cannot solve this problem through retaliatory violence. we must meet violence with nonviolence.
mlk and the media
-carefully planned protests in ‘combustible’ areas
-ensured cameras were present when there were arrests and demonstrations
-alerted whites to discrimination and injustice suffered by blacks
-media coverage meant mlk emerged as the leader of the CRM
-appeared non-threatening to whites (excellent public speaker, educated, middle class, christian)
-willing to be arrested + appear on the front line
white citizen’s council
organised to oppose opposition to boycott
white resistance
-feb 1956, 89 leaders arrested on anti-conspiracy charges -> brought up old law from 1921 banning boycotts
-king arrested for going 30 in a 25 in 1956
-white insurance brokers refused to insure black taxi drivers + carpoolers + licenses revoked
-violence: acid attacks on cars, mlk + abernathy’s homes fire bombed, churches burned down
-kkk rallies through black areas
-buses shot at after segregation end + people assaulted
-psychological resistance -> king criticised in media, fake media reports saying boycott was cancelled
-declared carpooling illegal in oct 1956
browder v. gayle 1956
13 nov 1956, supreme court ruled segregation on public transport unconstitutional
end of the boycott
20 dec 1956 mayor of montgomery announced end to separate seating on buses
-following day black leaders celebrated by taking seats at front of bus
-381 days after boycott began
how long did the boycott last
381 days
was the MBB a success
-succeeded in desegregating buses
-monumental for CRM, however desegregation would take time
-showed power of peaceful mass protest, achieved change through their own efforts
-showed ‘twin track’ approach (demonstrative + legal) worked
-huge turning point for race relations + paved way for further desegregation
-kickstarted wider CRM, leading to civil rights act 1964 + voting rights act 1965
howard zinn quote
‘montgomery was the beginning. it forecast the style and mood of the vast protest movement that would sweep the south in the next 10 years’
little rock nine -1957
sept. 1957, little rock central high school, arkansas, nine black students tried to enrol in all white school. governor orval faubus used national guard to stop students, despite their right to attend.
-black community took faubus to court, he withdrew national guard, but left black students unprotected from angry white mob.
-president EH sent 1000 federal troops to protect the students for the next 12 months.
little rock nine quote
‘it was like going to war everyday’
number of blacks in integrated schools by 1960
1960, 5 years after brown decision, 2,600 out of 2 million black kids in the south went to integrated schools
freedom rides
CORE organised series of freedom rides in 1961 to protest against segregation on interstate bus terminals
-blacks deliberately sat in white only sections of bus and railway stations to force them to desegregate
-many were attacked, robert kennedy sent 500 fed troops to protect them
-boynton v. virginia ordered them to desegregate
CORE
congress of racial equality -> set up by james farmer in 1961. led to successful freedom rides to desegregate interstate bus and railway stations
lunch counter protests
1960, nashville, black college students in nashville, tennessee staged sit-in at local lunch counter to protest against refusal to serve black customers
-attacked by white gang on 27 feb 1960
-more than 80 arrested on charges of disorderly conduct
easter boycott
in response to the treatment of the lunch counter protestors, black community boycotted all downtown stores, as well as picketed northern branches of national chain stores
-eventually, blacks served in restaurants
-repeated across the south
birmingham
CRM turned attention to birmingham in 1963, ‘most segregated city in america’ -mlk
-police chief, ‘Bull’ connor enforced extreme segregation
-ordered protestors in april to be attacked with water cannons + dogs + cattle prods
-connor became international symbol of bigotry, spectacle in the media garnered support for CRM among moderates
JFK quote
‘we are confronted primarily with a moral issue . . . the heart of the question is whether all americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities’
march on washington 1963
put pressure on kennedy to pass legislation.
-aug 1963, 250,000 people (50,000 whites) marched on lincoln memorial in washington DC to demand civil rights for all
i have a dream
‘I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: we hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal’
selma march 1965
7 march 1965, 600 people gathered in selma, alabama, to march to montgomery to demand voting rights for blacks.
-as they crossed edmund pettus bridge, attacked by state troopers + police under orders from governor wallace to stop march -used tear gas
-17 seriously injured, 40 hospitalised
-> week later, LBJ called for voting rights bill from congress using slogan ‘we shall overcome’
2nd selma march
23 march 1965, 3,200 people did march from selma to montgomery. protected by alabama national guard under orders from LBJ
-25,000 marchers led by MLK entered montgomery 5 days later (54 miles)
NAACP
national association for the advancement of coloured people -> founded 1908, brought cases to federal courts + legal defense fund provided lawyers for those arrested during protests
SCLC
southern christian and leadership conference -> founded 1957 by MLK, active in boycott campaigns in alabama + coordinated network of black churches across south to support movement
-trained activists in non-violent protest + handling of news media
SNCC
student nonviolent coordinating committee -> more militant student body, coordinated 1960 sit in in greensboro, south carolina + widened geographical range of CR activity. organised freedom summer campaign in mississippi in 1964. late 1960s at the forefront of black power movement
-over 50,000 people took part in sit ins across south, led to desegregation of facilities in over 100 cities in south
national council of negro women
provided logistical support to movement + programmes in literacy, combatting poverty, voter registration
citizens councils
formed across the south by whites. allowed local police,, politicians, judges, the kkk and white supremacists to work together locally. elected racist politicians, suppressed voter registration, opened private white only schools
bussing
white suburbanisation led to intrinsic segregation. 1960s, compulsory bussing of students to different schools to ensure more mixed student body. led to massive white resentment + decreased support for CRM
james meredith
black war vet, in 1962 denied on 4 occasions from enrolling in uni of mississippi. NAACP brought case to court + he was given right to enrol
-JFK sent federal marshalls to accompany meredith, violence erupted + 2 marshalls killed, 375 injured
-national guard ordered on campus next day
% of black kids at integrated schools, 1969
20%
JFK quote
‘the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened’
civil rights act 1964
pushed through congress by LBJ. protected citizens from discrimination in voting qualification, public services, segregation in schools, and created equal employment opportunity commission to investigate workplace discrimination cases. gave federal govt. power to enforce these rights
voting rights act 1965
forced through congress by LBJ. included govt. inspections of voting procedures, end to literacy tests + polling taxes
no. of cities desegregated by oct 1965
214 in the south
% of black students in segregated schools by 1972
under 10%
black unemployment by late 60s
7%
% of black families earning over $10,000 a year (middle class threshold) 1961 vs 1971
1961 - 13%
1971 - 31%
blacks elected to public office 1965 vs 1970
1965 - less than 100
1970 - over 500
% of blacks registered to vote 1964 vs 1968
1964 - 21%
1968 - 63%
death of MLK
shot dead in memphis, tennessee on april 4 1968 -> end of CRM, split between those willing to use force + those that weren’t, as well as those that wanted economic revolution and legal equality
