Modules 23-30, 43-46 Flashcards
1
Q
Memory
A
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
2
Q
Recall
A
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
3
Q
Recognition
A
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned
4
Q
Relearning
A
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
5
Q
Encoding
A
the process of information into the memory system – for example, by extracting memory
6
Q
Storage
A
the retention of encoded information over time
7
Q
Retrieval
A
the processing of getting information out of memory storage
8
Q
Short-Term Memory
A
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten
9
Q
Long-Term Memory
A
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
10
Q
Sensory Memory
A
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
11
Q
Working Memory
A
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
12
Q
Explicit Memory
A
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; also called declarative memory
13
Q
Effortful Processing
A
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
14
Q
Automatic Processing
A
unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning
15
Q
Implicit Memory
A
retention independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memory
16
Q
Iconic Memory
A
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
17
Q
Echoic Memory
A
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
18
Q
Chunking
A
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
19
Q
Mnemonics
A
memory aids
20
Q
Spacing Effect
A
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
21
Q
Testing Effect
A
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information; also called retrieval practice effect and test-enhanced learning
22
Q
Shallow Processing
A
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
23
Q
Deep Processing
A
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
24
Q
Flashbulb Memory
A
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
25
Long-Term Potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory
26
Hippocampus
encoding and use of explicit memories (where?)
27
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
28
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
29
Serial Position Effect
our tendency to recall best that last and first items in a list
30
Regency Effect
recalling the last items quick and well
31
Primary Effect
recall is best for the first items
32
Anterograde Amnesia
an inability to form new memories
33
Retrograde Amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
34
Proactive Interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
35
Retroactive Interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
36
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
37
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
38
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
39
Deja Vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before". Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
40
Cognition
mental processes and activities
41
Concept
mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas,or people
42
Prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
43
Algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
44
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problem efficiently
45
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution
46
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
47
Mental Set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way that has been successful in the past
48
Intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
49
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
50
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct
51
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
52
Framing
the way an issue is posed
53
Language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
54
Phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
55
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
56
Grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
57
Babbling Stage
the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds as first unrelated to the household language
58
One-Word Stage
the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words
59
Two-Word Stage
the stage in development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
60
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs
61
Aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area
62
Broca's Area
controls language expression-- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movement involved in speech
63
Wernicke's Area
controls language reception-- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
64
Linguistic Determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
65
Intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
66
Intelligence Test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others,using numerical scores
67
General Intelligence
"g" factor; when someone does well in all subjects (Charles Spearman)
68
Factor Analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
69
Savant Syndrome
having isolated "islands" of high ability amidst a sea of below-average cognitive and social functioning
70
Creativity
the ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable
71
Emotional Intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
72
Mental Age
the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
73
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
74
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100
75
Achievement Test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
76
Aptitude Test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance
77
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests
78
Standardization
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a protested group
79
Normal Curve
the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attibutes
80
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting
81
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
82
Content Validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
83
Predictive Validity
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
84
Cohort
a group of people from a given time period
85
Crystallized Intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
86
Fluid Intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
87
Intellectual Disabilty
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life
88
Down Syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
89
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
90
Attribution Theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation of the person's disposition
91
Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
92
Attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose is to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
93
Peripheral Route Persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
94
Central Route Persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts => facts, logic
95
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
96
Role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position,defining how those in the position ought to behave
97
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
98
Conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
99
Normative Social Influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid dispproval
100
Informational Social Influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
101
Social Facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
102
Social Loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
103
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
104
Group Polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
105
Groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic approval of alternatives
106
Prejudice
an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude towards a group and its members
107
Sterotype
a generalized belief about a group of people
108
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
109
Just-World Phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
110
Ingroup
people with whom we share a common identity
111
Outgroup
those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
112
Ingroup Bias
the tendency to favor our own group
113
Scapegoat Theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
114
Other-Race Effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
115
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
116
Social Script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
117
Frustration-Aggression Principle
the principle that frustration creates anger which can generate agression
118
Auditory Rehearsal, Executive Functions, Visospatial "sketchpad"
Three functions of working memory
119
About 12 seconds
the duration of working memory
120
Peg Word System
the technique of visually associating new words with an existing list that is already memorized along with numbers
121
Self-Reference Effect
relating material to ourselves
122
Memories are not in isolated files,but are in overlapping neural networks
memory storage (location) comparison with a computer
123
Long-Term Memory storage does not get full; it gets more elaborately rewired and interconnected
memory storage (capacity) comparison with a computer
124
Frontal Lobes
retrieval and storage of explicit memories (where?)
125
Cerebellum
forms and stores our conditioned respones
126
Basal Ganglia
controls movement, and forms and stores procedural memory and motor skills
127
Infantile Amnesia
implicit memory can be retained, including skills and conditioned responses, but explicit memories only go back to about age 3 for most people
128
Conceptual, Contextual, Emotional
memory involves a web of associations:
129
H.M had his hippocampus removed and could not form new explicit memories (anterograde amnesia)
the case of H.M
130
Encoding Failure
when you don't pay attention to details and don't select them from sensory memory to hold in working memory or you don't bother rehearsing it and ______ it into long-term memory
131
Storage Decay
material encoded into long term memory will decay if the memory is never used, recalled, and re-stored
132
Retrieval Failure
sometimes, the memory doesn't decay, but the associations and links that help us find our way to the stored memory do decay
133
Motivated Forgetting
choosing to forget or to change our memories
134
we sometimes make an unconscious decision to bury our anxiety-provoking memories and them from conscious awareness (repression)
Sigmund Freud's belief on forgetting
135
Categorization
the tendency to mold our memories and perceptions to fit pre-existing categories/concepts
136
Trial and Error
problem solving that involves trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying others
137
Fixation
an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
138
Receptive Language
associating sounds with facial movements, and recognizing when sounds are broken into words
139
Productive Language
babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures
140
Critical Period
beginning appropriate language exposure/education early
141
Multiple Intelligences
different people have intelligence/ability in different areas
142
Creative Intelligence
generating new new ideas to produce ideas that are novel and valuable
143
Convergent Thinking
left-brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer
144
Divergent Thinking
the ability to generate new ideas, new actions (creativity uses this)
145
Perceiving, Understanding, Managing, and Using Emotions
components of emotional intelligence
146
Binet
assumed that all children follow the same course of development, some going more quickly, and others more slowly
147
Mental Age
how far the child had come along on the "normal" developmental pathway
148
(mental age/chronological age) x 100
IQ calculation
149
Test-Retest Reliability
the test will give the same result if used again
150
Split-Half Reliability
two halves of the test yield the same results
151
Older adults don't perform as well as younger adults
cross-sectional evidence for intelligence changes with age
152
Intelligence remains stable, or even increases, over time
longitudinal evidence for intelligence changes with age
153
Intellectual Disability
wechsler intelligence score below 70 (2%); have difficulty with adaptive skills
154
Gifted Intelligence
wechsler intelligence score about 130 (2%); can seem socially delayed or withdrawn
155
Situational Attribution
factors outside the person doing the action
156
Dispositional Attribution
the person's stable, enduring traits (personality, ability, emotions)
157
1. External influences 2. Stable Attitude 3. Attitude is Specific to Behavior 4. Attitude is easily Recalled
what effects attitudes (4)
158
Automatic Mimicry/The Chameleon Effect
- contagious yawning
- adopting regional accents
- empathetic shifts in mood
- adopting coping styles
159
Social Norm
a "correct" or "normal" way to behave or think in a group
160
Asch Study
about 1/3 of people will agree with obvious mistruths to go along with the group
161
Milgram Obedience Study
examined to influence of direct commands on behavior: under what social conditions are people more likely to obey commands?
162
1. Some people can resist obeying and conforming
2. Individuals can start social movements and forces
3. Individuals can speak up when a group decision is wrong
the power of the individual
163
Automatic Prejudice
a study showed that people were more likely to misperceive a tool as a gun when preceded by an African-American face, when both were presented quickly followed by a black screen or "visual mask" (concept)
164
seeing dramatic events of something may lead to forming false associations; using one case to represent something broad
judging based on vivid cases (availability heuristic)
165
Just-World Fallacy
believing that justice generally happens, that people get the benefits and punishments they deserve
166
1. Can be selectively bred in animals
2. Identical twins are more similar than fraternal
3. Males are more prone
genetic influences on aggression
167
1. Underactive frontal lobes
| 2. Stimulation to the amygdala
neural influences on agression
168
Testosterone levels are correlated with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration
testosterone and aggression
169
Pain, Heat, Crowding, and Foul Odors
aversive conditions
170
Parents may have modeled aggressive behavior
family model of aggression
171
Social Scripts
aggression in media
172
Proximity
working or living near the other person
173
The Mere Exposure Effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
174
Romantic Love
attraction => passionate love => compassionate love => equity and self-disclosure => positive interaction, support
175
Passionate Love
state of strong attraction, interest etc.
176
Compassionate Love
deep, caring, affectionate attachment/ commitment
177
1. Physiological Arousal
2. Flattering Appraisal
3. Intense Desire
components of passionate love
178
Equity
giving and receiving, sharing responsibilities with a sense of partnership
179
Self-Disclosure
sharing self in conversation increase intimacy
180
Positive Interactions and Support
offering sympathy, concern, hugs, laugh
181
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of other people
182
Bystander Effect
fewer people help when others are available
183
Diffusion of Responsibility
the role of helper does not fall just on one person
184
Conflict
a perceived incompatibility in goals, ideas, and actions between people or groups
185
Social Traps
situations in which pursuing self-interest makes things worse for everyone
186
Mirror Image Perception
both sides assuming the worst in the other person
187
Contact
exposure and interaction => familiarity => acceptance => connection
188
Cooperation
finding shared goals, not just focusing on the incompatible goals
189
Communication
sometimes with mediators
190
Conciliation
gestures that reduce tension by showing intention to build alliances rather than winning conflicts
