module two Flashcards
1
Q
common qualitative methodologies
A
- phenomenology - study of human phenomena (lived experience and the meaning that a person attaches to it)
- grounded theory- study of relationship between people and behaviour. Data is collected from human interaction over time, then theory is developed as the data is analysed
- Ethnography- study of social groups (as part of their culture)
2
Q
what is qualitative research
A
- Often close relationship between researcher and the participants
- seek a rich description and theory around human experience, beliefs or meaning
- Is interpretive, post positivist, naturalist or constructivist ( naturally occurring events or situations construct reality)
3
Q
mixed methods research
A
- acknowledges that quantitative and qualitative research are inter-related
- combines the best methods from both paradigms for gathering data on complex issues
- uses questionnaires, practice observation and interviews
4
Q
what is quantitative research
A
- Considers that variables of interest can be measured
- Usually has a hypothesis, derived from the research question
- Presents results as numerical data
5
Q
ontology
A
what is reality?
world view
6
Q
epistemology
A
can it be measured and understood?
7
Q
theoretical perspective
A
what approach can we use to get knowledge
8
Q
methodology
A
what procedure can we use to acquire knowledge
9
Q
methods
A
what tools can we use to acquire knowledge
10
Q
sources
A
what data can we collect
11
Q
quantitative key terms
A
- Control group- does not receive the intervention
- Randomisation- assigned to control group or study group
- Manipulation- manipulate variable in the experimental group
- Blinding- information hidden from participants
- Independent (what you are controlling) and dependent (what is affected by the change in the independent variable) variables
12
Q
3 major categories of quantitative research
A
- observational (non-experimental) - explores relationship between pairs of variables
- quasi-experimental design- the researcher manipulates the intervention but true randomisation is not possible
- experimental design- has all 3 properties- control, randomisation and manipulation
13
Q
data collection
A
- direct- data collected directly from participants e.g. interview, journal, observation, focus groups
- indirect- data generated by someone or something else e.g documents or photos
14
Q
data analysis
A
- active engagement with raw data and analytical processes to elicit new meaning or knowledge
- coding- data managed into categories, by identifying common words or concepts
- data analysis creates order, elicits meaning and communicates findings
- treat the data as a whole, seeking overall themes
15
Q
styles of data analysis- qualitative
A
- fracturing, grouping and gluing- data divided into codes of recurring themes, then grouped with a label and linked
- free-form analysis- no instructions. may code line by line or scan paragraphs for units of meaning, then categorise
- following directions- coding process stipulated from the beginning. common in ground theory
- circling and parking- avoids fracturing the data into categories- seeks overall themes and meaning of dataset
16
Q
what is the trustworthiness of quantitative research
A
- seeks validity and reliability
17
Q
what is the trustworthiness of qualitative research
A
- seeks credibility, audibility and fittingness
18
Q
grades of evidence
A
- not all evidence generated in research is the same
- as health professionals its essential we can discriminate
- grade A- strong support that merits application
- grade B- moderate support that warrants consideration
- grade C- not supported
19
Q
what is an independant variable
A
what is manipulated
20
Q
what is a dependant variable
A
what is being measured (what changes)
21
Q
everything on quantitative study
A
what it is
- Considers that variables of interest can be measured
- Usually has a hypothesis, derived from the research question
- Presents results as numerical data
its design
- control- controlling variables that may cause bias to results such as the study group
- randomisation- ensure variables are equally distributed between group
- manipulation- manipulate a variable in the experimental group only (not the control group) the result is the measurable outcome
key terms
- Control group- does not receive the intervention
- Randomisation- assigned to control group or study group
- Manipulation- manipulate variable in the experimental group
- Blinding- information hidden from participants
- Independent (what you are controlling) and dependent (what is affected by the change in the independent variable) variables
22
Q
what to think of when doing a study
A
- the research design
- ethical approval
- sampling- how the participants are selected
- exclusion and inclusion criteria
- probability sampling- uses an element of random selection of participants, give the wider population an equal chance of being selected, minimises bias, enables more generalisability of findings
23
Q
validity of data- quantitative
A
- internal validity- the extent to which the intervention (independant variable) is responsible for changes in the observed effect (dependent variable)
- external validity- the degree to which the results of the study can be generalised beyond the immediate study sample and setting
24
Q
analysing data- quantitative
A
- descriptive statistics- plot raw data from a sample, reduce data to meaningful units
- inferential statistics- determine if conclusions can be drawn from the descriptive data
25
probability and non probability sampling qualitative
- probability- random selection of participants from the target population e.g a few people put research out to others, meet pre-selected criteria, this gives a wider population an equal chance of being selected and helps minimise bias
- non probability sampling- does not involve randomisation, sample may be directly approached, results are less representative
26
action research
researcher collaborates with participants
27
descriptive research
acknowledges that the participant and researcher both interpret what they describe
28
meta-synthesis research
integrate findings of multiple studies
29
historical research
e.g. compare nursing in the covid-19 pandemic with polio pandemic
30
what are the types of observational (non-experimental) studies
1. descriptive/ exploratory studies- observe relationship between one variable and another
2. correlational studies- explore the relationship between pairs of variables
3. retrospective- link measured outcome to a past event
4. case control studies- retrospective epidemiological approach
5. cohort studies- epidemiological approach looking for a cause and effect at one point in time
31
what is action research
- aims to emancipate people from the oppressive social structures
- group members are co researchers actively exploring an issue collaboratively
- useful for changing clinical practices
32
case study approach
- detailed examination of a single case using multiple data sources
- may examine an individual, community or process
- observational and responsive to social context
- usually short term observation of day to day routines
33
the four levels of measurement
1. nominal- organise by characteristics, in no particular order e.g. eye colour
2. ordinal- rank objects, with variable intervals e.g. pain scale 1-10
3. interval scale- equal intervals between points on a scale e.g. patient temps
4. ratio scale- scores plotted at equal intervals and an absolute zero e.g. baby length
34
measures of central tendency
- mode- most frequently occurring score
- median- point on the scale where half the scores are above and half below
- mean- most commonly used score (average)
35
measures of variability of dispersion
- spread of the data
- range- difference between highest and lowest point
- standard deviation- average deviation of each score from the group mean or normally a bell shaped curve
36
skewness
- a curve may be skewed in a positive or negative aspect
- most statistical packages can measure skewness
- a skewed curve means that the mewan and standard deviation do not describe the data accurately
37
confidence interval
- this is the chance that the difference between 2 points is real
38
probability
- is the proportion between 0 (the event will not occur) and 1 (the event will occur)
- level of significance= the probability score that indicates that an outcome is statistically significant
39
ethical considerations when conducting research
- each participant was given an information sheet
- each participant signed a consent form
- participants can withdraw at any time
- ethical approval granted by the health and disability multi-region ethics committee
40
types of non probability sampling
1. convenience sample- opportunistic
2. snowball sample- a few people put the research out to others
3. theoretical sample- move from a small homogenous sample to a larger more representative sample
4. purposive sample- meet pre-selected criteria
41
inclusion and exclusion criteria
- inclusion- characteristics that the person or population must possess
- exclusion criteria- characteristic that deem a participant inappropriate for inclusion
42
data saturation
- saturation is not about the quantity, but the richness of the data
- when the researcher feels that enough data has been collected, the data collection can stop and data analysis can commence
- occurs when there is enough data to answer the research question
43
data analysis- qualitative
- coding- data managed into categories, by identifying common words or concepts
- may follow specific analytical process or code in free form
- data analysis created order, elicits meaning and communicates findings
- may occur during or after data collection
44
what are randomised, control trials RCT
are prospective studies that measure the effectiveness of a new intervention or treatment. Although no study is likely on its own to prove causality, randomization reduces bias and provides a rigorous tool to examine cause-effect relationships between an intervention and outcome.
