module two

Question 1

common qualitative methodologies

Answer 1

• phenomenology - study of human phenomena (lived experience and the meaning that a person attaches to it)
• grounded theory- study of relationship between people and behaviour. Data is collected from human interaction over time, then theory is developed as the data is analysed
• Ethnography- study of social groups (as part of their culture)

Question 2

what is qualitative research

Answer 2

• Often close relationship between researcher and the participants
• seek a rich description and theory around human experience, beliefs or meaning
• Is interpretive, post positivist, naturalist or constructivist ( naturally occurring events or situations construct reality)

Question 3

mixed methods research

Answer 3

• acknowledges that quantitative and qualitative research are inter-related
• combines the best methods from both paradigms for gathering data on complex issues
• uses questionnaires, practice observation and interviews

Question 4

what is quantitative research

Answer 4

• Considers that variables of interest can be measured
• Usually has a hypothesis, derived from the research question
• Presents results as numerical data

Question 5

ontology

Answer 5

what is reality?

world view

Question 6

epistemology

Answer 6

can it be measured and understood?

Question 7

theoretical perspective

Answer 7

what approach can we use to get knowledge

Question 8

methodology

Answer 8

what procedure can we use to acquire knowledge

Question 9

methods

Answer 9

what tools can we use to acquire knowledge

Question 10

sources

Answer 10

what data can we collect

Question 11

quantitative key terms

Answer 11

• Control group- does not receive the intervention
• Randomisation- assigned to control group or study group
• Manipulation- manipulate variable in the experimental group
• Blinding- information hidden from participants
• Independent (what you are controlling) and dependent (what is affected by the change in the independent variable) variables

Question 12

3 major categories of quantitative research

Answer 12

1. observational (non-experimental) - explores relationship between pairs of variables
2. quasi-experimental design- the researcher manipulates the intervention but true randomisation is not possible
3. experimental design- has all 3 properties- control, randomisation and manipulation

Question 13

data collection

Answer 13

1. direct- data collected directly from participants e.g. interview, journal, observation, focus groups
2. indirect- data generated by someone or something else e.g documents or photos

Question 14

data analysis

Answer 14

• active engagement with raw data and analytical processes to elicit new meaning or knowledge
• coding- data managed into categories, by identifying common words or concepts
• data analysis creates order, elicits meaning and communicates findings
• treat the data as a whole, seeking overall themes

Question 15

styles of data analysis- qualitative

Answer 15

• fracturing, grouping and gluing- data divided into codes of recurring themes, then grouped with a label and linked
• free-form analysis- no instructions. may code line by line or scan paragraphs for units of meaning, then categorise
• following directions- coding process stipulated from the beginning. common in ground theory
• circling and parking- avoids fracturing the data into categories- seeks overall themes and meaning of dataset

Question 16

what is the trustworthiness of quantitative research

Answer 16

• seeks validity and reliability

Question 17

what is the trustworthiness of qualitative research

Answer 17

• seeks credibility, audibility and fittingness

Question 18

grades of evidence

Answer 18

• not all evidence generated in research is the same
• as health professionals its essential we can discriminate
• grade A- strong support that merits application
• grade B- moderate support that warrants consideration
• grade C- not supported

Question 19

what is an independant variable

Answer 19

what is manipulated

Question 20

what is a dependant variable

Answer 20

what is being measured (what changes)

Question 21

everything on quantitative study

Answer 21

what it is

• Considers that variables of interest can be measured
• Usually has a hypothesis, derived from the research question
• Presents results as numerical data

its design

• control- controlling variables that may cause bias to results such as the study group
• randomisation- ensure variables are equally distributed between group
• manipulation- manipulate a variable in the experimental group only (not the control group) the result is the measurable outcome

key terms

• Control group- does not receive the intervention
• Randomisation- assigned to control group or study group
• Manipulation- manipulate variable in the experimental group
• Blinding- information hidden from participants
• Independent (what you are controlling) and dependent (what is affected by the change in the independent variable) variables

Question 22

what to think of when doing a study

Answer 22

• the research design
• ethical approval
• sampling- how the participants are selected
• exclusion and inclusion criteria
• probability sampling- uses an element of random selection of participants, give the wider population an equal chance of being selected, minimises bias, enables more generalisability of findings

Question 23

validity of data- quantitative

Answer 23

• internal validity- the extent to which the intervention (independant variable) is responsible for changes in the observed effect (dependent variable)
• external validity- the degree to which the results of the study can be generalised beyond the immediate study sample and setting

Question 24

analysing data- quantitative

Answer 24

• descriptive statistics- plot raw data from a sample, reduce data to meaningful units
• inferential statistics- determine if conclusions can be drawn from the descriptive data

Question 25

probability and non probability sampling qualitative

Answer 25

• probability- random selection of participants from the target population e.g a few people put research out to others, meet pre-selected criteria, this gives a wider population an equal chance of being selected and helps minimise bias
• non probability sampling- does not involve randomisation, sample may be directly approached, results are less representative

Question 26

action research

Answer 26

researcher collaborates with participants

Question 27

descriptive research

Answer 27

acknowledges that the participant and researcher both interpret what they describe

Question 28

meta-synthesis research

Answer 28

integrate findings of multiple studies

Question 29

historical research

Answer 29

e.g. compare nursing in the covid-19 pandemic with polio pandemic

Question 30

what are the types of observational (non-experimental) studies

Answer 30

1. descriptive/ exploratory studies- observe relationship between one variable and another
2. correlational studies- explore the relationship between pairs of variables
3. retrospective- link measured outcome to a past event
4. case control studies- retrospective epidemiological approach
5. cohort studies- epidemiological approach looking for a cause and effect at one point in time

Question 31

what is action research

Answer 31

• aims to emancipate people from the oppressive social structures
• group members are co researchers actively exploring an issue collaboratively
• useful for changing clinical practices

Question 32

case study approach

Answer 32

• detailed examination of a single case using multiple data sources
• may examine an individual, community or process
• observational and responsive to social context
• usually short term observation of day to day routines

Question 33

the four levels of measurement

Answer 33

1. nominal- organise by characteristics, in no particular order e.g. eye colour
2. ordinal- rank objects, with variable intervals e.g. pain scale 1-10
3. interval scale- equal intervals between points on a scale e.g. patient temps
4. ratio scale- scores plotted at equal intervals and an absolute zero e.g. baby length

Question 34

measures of central tendency

Answer 34

• mode- most frequently occurring score
• median- point on the scale where half the scores are above and half below
• mean- most commonly used score (average)

Question 35

measures of variability of dispersion

Answer 35

• spread of the data
• range- difference between highest and lowest point
• standard deviation- average deviation of each score from the group mean or normally a bell shaped curve

Question 36

skewness

Answer 36

• a curve may be skewed in a positive or negative aspect
• most statistical packages can measure skewness
• a skewed curve means that the mewan and standard deviation do not describe the data accurately

Question 37

confidence interval

Answer 37

• this is the chance that the difference between 2 points is real

Question 38

probability

Answer 38

• is the proportion between 0 (the event will not occur) and 1 (the event will occur)
• level of significance= the probability score that indicates that an outcome is statistically significant

Question 39

ethical considerations when conducting research

Answer 39

• each participant was given an information sheet
• each participant signed a consent form
• participants can withdraw at any time
• ethical approval granted by the health and disability multi-region ethics committee

Question 40

types of non probability sampling

Answer 40

1. convenience sample- opportunistic
2. snowball sample- a few people put the research out to others
3. theoretical sample- move from a small homogenous sample to a larger more representative sample
4. purposive sample- meet pre-selected criteria

Question 41

inclusion and exclusion criteria

Answer 41

• inclusion- characteristics that the person or population must possess
• exclusion criteria- characteristic that deem a participant inappropriate for inclusion

Question 42

data saturation

Answer 42

• saturation is not about the quantity, but the richness of the data
• when the researcher feels that enough data has been collected, the data collection can stop and data analysis can commence
• occurs when there is enough data to answer the research question

Question 43

data analysis- qualitative

Answer 43

• coding- data managed into categories, by identifying common words or concepts
• may follow specific analytical process or code in free form
• data analysis created order, elicits meaning and communicates findings
• may occur during or after data collection

Question 44

what are randomised, control trials RCT

Answer 44

are prospective studies that measure the effectiveness of a new intervention or treatment. Although no study is likely on its own to prove causality, randomization reduces bias and provides a rigorous tool to examine cause-effect relationships between an intervention and outcome.