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chemistry > module 7 HSC > Flashcards

module 7 HSC Flashcards

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1
Q

molecular geometry of triple bonded carbon

A

linear

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2
Q

molecular geometry of double bonded carbon

A

trigonal planar

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3
Q

molecular geometry of single bonded carbon

A

tetrahedral

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4
Q

alkane

A
  • saturated
  • single bond
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5
Q

alkene

A
  • unsaturated
  • double bond
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6
Q

alkyne

A
  • unsaturated
  • triple bond
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7
Q

structural isomer

A

compounds with the same molecular formula but different molecular structures

  • chain
  • position
  • functional group
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8
Q

chain isomers

A

reaarange the carbon backbone

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9
Q

position isomer

A

changing the position of the functional group on the carbon backbone

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10
Q

functional group isomer

A

change the functional group

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11
Q

stable out of alkane, alkene, alkyne

A

alkane = stable
alkyne + alkene = relatively unstable

intermolecular bonds = single covalent bonds are more stable as triple and double have pi bonds which make them more vulnerable (hug easier to break than a handshake)

  • pi bonds are more exposed to chemical reagents as they are above and below bonding atoms
  • beta bonds aren’t as exposed to chemical reagents as they are between bonding atoms
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12
Q

bond stability

A

ease or difficulty of another molecule reacting with the molecule

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13
Q

bond strength

A

energy input required to completely dissociate two atoms joined by a particular bond

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14
Q

strength out of alkane, alkene, alkyne

A

alkane < alkene < alkyne

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15
Q

boiling point of alkanes

A
  • intermolecular forces of dispersion forces
  • as the chain length increases , strength of dispersion forces increase which leads to increase boiling points
  • branched chain isomers = smaller surface area + more compact shape -> reduced opportunity for temporary dipoles and has weaker dispersion forces leading to lower boiling points that straight chained isomers
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15
Q

types of addition reactions

A
  • hydrogenation
  • halogenation
  • hydrohalogenation
  • hydration
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16
Q

what molecule is addition reactions for

A

unsaturated

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17
Q

hydrogenation

A

alkenes:
alkene + H2 -> alkane

catalyst: Pd/c

alkynes:
alkyne + H2 -> alkene
catalyst: lindlar catalyst poisoned with Pb (for alkene as final product)

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18
Q

halogenation

A

alkene + X2 -> ..
- the two halogens get added across the bond
- eg. chlorination, bromination, iodination

  • molar ratio is important if 2Br2 then add 4
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18
Q

hydrohalogenation

A

HX added across the pi bond
eg. hydrobromination

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19
Q

hydration

A

alkene:
alkene + H2O -> alcohol

catalyst: dil. H2SO4 + heat
- markovnikovs rule applies

alkyne:
alkyne + H2O -> keytone/aldehyde but prioritise keytone if possible

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20
Q

markovnikovs rule

A

hydrogen will bind to carbon tom with a greater number of hydrogen already attached to it

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21
Q

substitution reaction

A

alkane + Cl2 -> add and forms chlroalkane + HCl
requires UV light

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22
Q

combustion of alcohol

A

alcohol + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
- extremely exothermic

complete:
- sufficient oxygen
- all carbons converted to CO2

incomplete:
- oxygen deficient
- some carbon released as CO or soot

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23
Q

coefficient of fuel in combustion

A

always 1

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24
Q

dehydration of alcohols

A

alcohol -> alkene + H2O
catalyst:
- conc H2SO4
- heat for primary and secondary
- RTP for tertiary

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25
Q

alcohol substitution with hydrogen halide

A

alcohol + HX -> haloalkane + H2O

  • catalyst: ZnX2
    eg. if it was chlorine it would be ZnCl2
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26
Q

reactivity of hydrohalides

A

HI > HBR > HCl > HF

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27
Q

oxidation of alcohols

A

primary: aldehyde -> carboxylic acid
secondary: ketone
tertiary: does not occur

catalysts:
- heat
- KMnO4 , acidified potassium permanganate
or K2Cr2O7, acidified potassium dichromate
- dil H2SO4

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28
Q

learn redox

A
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29
Q

substitution of haloalkane

A

primary + secondary:

catalyst: heat, acetone solvent
haloalkane + dilute NaOH -> alcohol + salt

eg. bromoethane + NaOH -> NaBr + ethanol

tertiary:
tertiary haloalkane + H2O -> tertiary alcohol + HX

catalyst: heat

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30
Q

hydroxyl bond info

A
  • polar covalent due to the large electronegativity differences
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31
Q

boiling point trends: alcohol vs alkane

A
  1. as the chain length increases, stronger dispersion forces = higher bp for both
  2. alcohols > alkanes
    - alkanes = non-polar -> only dispersion forces
    - alcohols = polar -> dispersion, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole
    - harder to break
  3. as length increases from 1-8 , alcohol is still greater
    - but the difference is smaller
    - proportion of non polar bonds in the alkyl chain and polar bonds diminishes making dispersion forces the dominating force
32
Q

difference in boiling points of alcohols

A

1 > 2 > 3
- since -OH in primary is the most accessible, dipole-dipole + hydrogen bonding is stronger
- crowding of the -OH group also hinders he formation of hydrogen bonds

33
Q

formation of amine

A

alcohol + ammonia -> primary amine + water

34
Q

difference between amine and amide

A

amine = N and formed from alcohol

amide = carbonyl group attached to the N , produced throuh condensation reaction of carboxylic acids

35
Q

production of amides

A

primary amide:

carboxylic acid + ammonia -> primary amide + water

catalyst:
- reflux
- DCC
- 190 degrees celcius + 4 hours

secondary amide:
carboxylic acid + primary amide -> secondary amide + water

catalyst:
- reflux
- DCC
- 190 degrees celcius + 4 hours

tertiary amide:

carboxylic acid + secondary amide -> secondary amide + water

catalyst:
- reflux
- DCC
- 190 degrees celcius + 4 hours

36
Q

dissolving of alcohols in water

A
  • break solvent -solvent
  • break solute - solute
  • form solute -solvent

due to the alcohols polar head, it dissolves readily in polar solvents such as water in comparison to alkanes but less in non-polar solvents such as benzene

37
Q

solubility trends in alcohols

A
  • increased carbon chain = increased solubility of alcohols in polar solvents

tertiary > secondary > primary

  • since tertiary is the most compact with the least accessible Oh it has the weakest dispersion forces and solute-solute interactions
38
Q

natural sources of hydrocarbons + disadvantages and advantages of petroleum

A

fossil fuels: produced by natural processes on fossilised remains of organisms over significant time

  • NON RENEWABLE
  • eg. petroleum
    advantages:
  • environmental: extraction reduces pressure on underground oil reservoir to minimise oil seeping
  • economic: cheap to extract as fossil fuels are found readily
  • sociocultural: creates new communities where there are more job opportunities

disadvantages:
- environmental: drilling and fracking damages land, exposing heavy metals and radioactive substances
- economic: requires relatively high initial cost and infrastructure
- sociocultural: may intrude on scared indigenous land, degrade appeal of natural tourist attractions

39
Q

advantages and disadvantages of hydrocarbon uses

A

a:

  • environmental: natural gas burns cleaner than wood, haber process saves habitat from conversion into cropland
  • economic: provide more employment, taxation revenue generated
  • sociocultural: cultural globalisation with increased international travel, increased availability of electricity boosting community

d:
- environmental: acid rain from NO2, climate change caused by CO2 production and runaway greenhouse effect
- economical: global wealth inequality, automation leads to less jobs in manual labour
- sociocultural: degrade appeal of tourist attractions, human rights violations in extreme cases

40
Q

biofuels

A

renewable fuels derived from plant material due to fossil fuels depleting rapidly and the rapid pace of climate change
- eg. sugarcane, grains
- carbon neutral = no net release of CO2

eg. bioethanol, biogas, biodiesel

41
Q

advantages and disadvantages of biofuels

A

a:
- renewable
- carbon neutral
- when bioethanol is used it burns more cleanly which reduced the release of carbon monoxide and mitigates the need for toxic additives
d:
- relatively new
- expensive
- requires environmental sacrifices to maximise fuel yield
- deforestation which destroys the habitat
- lots of energy required

evaluation: while there is an absolute imperative to develop biofuels further, they have not been widely accepted into common usage due to their economic and political unviability at this point in time

42
Q

bioethanol

A
  • produced from fermentation of glucose

a:
- carbon neutral -> CO2 emitted from complete combustion is matched to the amount of CO2 consumed by sugarcane in photosynthesis

d:
- requires expensive modifications
- additional CO2 is emitted in processing and transportation
- ethanol is lower enthalpy of combustion ithan octane but requires more fuel to make the same energy

43
Q

fermentation

A

biological process by which carbohydrates are converted to alcohol by yeasts and other microorgansisms

44
Q

conditions of fermentation

A
  1. zymase enzyme
  2. 37 degree temperature
  3. anaerobic environment (deprived of oxygen)
  4. low pH (3.7 - 4.6)
45
Q

photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

46
Q

fermentation of glucose

A

C6H12O6 -> (zymase) 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

47
Q

combustion of bioethanol

A

C2H5OH + 3O2 -> 2CO2 + 3H2O

48
Q

properties of aldehydes and ketones

A

carbonyl group
- oxygen is more electronegative than carbon so C-O is polar
- has dispersion + dipole
- weaker intermolecular forces than alcohols and they lack the ability to have hydrogen bonding

  • solubility decreases as the chain length decreases
48
Q

enthalpy of combustion in alcohol discussion

A

factors that increase delta H of combustion:
- not stirring water at the base of the can which is warmer –> stir vigorously with. rod
- thermometer resting at the base of the can which may be warmer -> suspend the thermometer in the water with a clamp from the retort stand

factors that increase delta H of combustion:
- impurities in water so it wont combust well -> change spirit burner
- can is too far from flame or has soot so there is insufficient heat transfer -> clean can and move closer
- can is too close to the flame so there is insufficient O2 and incomplete combustion occurs -> move further away
- heat radiated/conducted from apparatus and surroundings -> turn off fans and use a lid

49
Q

properties of carboxylic acids

A
  • polar: presence of two highly electronegative oxygen atoms
  • has dispersion + hydrogen + dipole
  • stronger intermolecular forces than alcohols as it has both CO and OH
  • high boiling points and high solubility (shorter)
  • the longer the chain, the non-polar portion dominates making it less soluble
50
Q

properties of amines

A

polar as the nitrogen is highly electronegative
- has both dipole dipole and hydrogen bonding but weaker than an OH bond as the difference i smaller
- weaker intermolecular forces than alcohols and carboxylic acids
- stronger than alkanes
- soluble in water esp short chained
- high boiling point than alkane but lower than carboxylic and alcohols

tertiary < secondary < primary (more hydrogen bonds) and tertiary does not participate in hydrogen bonds -> lower solubility and boiling point

51
Q

amides

A

primary and scondary have hydrogen bnding
- all have dipole dipole
- strongest intermolecular forces out of all organic compounds due to the unique geometry in the hydrogen bonding
- high boiling points
smaller amides are more soluble as dispersion forces decrease as molecular weight increases

52
Q

what is the safety sheet called

A

Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) or Safety Data Sheet (SDS)

53
Q

how does MSDS/SDS protect

A
  • potential hazards
  • precautions to avoid injury
  • first aid action plan
54
Q

dangers that organic substances pose

A
  • volatile (vapour at rtp)
  • flammable
  • corrosive/caustic
55
Q

how to safely use organic substances

A

personal protective equipment (PPE)
- safety goggles
- gloves
- lab coat

  • fume cupboard to handle volatile substances
  • emergency shower + eye washer
56
Q

benzene

A

C6H6
- ring structure
- aromatic
- alternating double and single bonds
- extremely stable

57
Q

phenols

A

basically benzene with a hydroxyl group that replaces a hydrogen atom
- weakly acidic

58
Q

esters

A

-COO

  • equilibrium reaction
    alcohol + carboxylic acid ->-< ester + water

catalyst:
- conc. H2SO4
- reflux

59
Q

scents of esters

A

ethyl butanoate = pineapple

ethyl ethanoate = nail polish rem

60
Q

properties of esters

A
  • two polar bonds C-O and C–O
  • dipole dipole and dispersion forces
  • lack of hydrogen bonding -> lower boiling point and poor solubility
  • as the chain increases = stronger dispersion forces
  • solubility decreases as chain increases and hydrophobic chain dominates
61
Q

production of esters

A

conc H2SO4 increases rate of reaction and acts as a dehydrating agent shifting equilibrium right
- heat increases the rate of reaction
- boiling chips prompts even boiling and controls boiling

61
Q

reflux

A

procedure by which flask is continually heated whist vapours eerging from it are guided through a condenser tube which cools the gases and condenses them back into the reaction flask

62
Q

role of H2SO4 in esters

A

acts as a catalyst to increase rate of reactions

acts as a dehydrating agent to shift the equilibrium to the right

63
Q

role of reflux for esters

A
  1. prevents loss of reagents and products
  2. allows reaction to be performed at a much higher temperature
  3. improves safety
64
Q

role of boiling chips

A
  1. provides nucleation points for bubbles to promote a smoother boil
  2. reduces risk of superheating
65
Q

surfactants + example

A

surface-active agents which lower the surface tension of a liquid
- hydrophilic head
- hydrophobic tail
= non-polar alkyl tail

eg. soaps and detergent which are added to clean non-polar substances from surfaces such as oil and grease

66
Q

natural vs artificial vs artificial soaps and detergent

A

soap = natural
detergent = artfiicial

67
Q

hydrophilic head

A
  • polar
  • often charged
  • interacting with water molecules by ion-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding
68
Q

hydrophobic tail

A
  • non-polar
  • does not interact strongly with water
  • interacts with other alkyl tails via dispersion forces
69
Q

soap

A

ion with a long non-polar alkyl tail and a polar charged carboxylate head
- present as sodium/potassium salts

hardwater:
- precipitates with Mg2+ and Ca2+ to form scum

70
Q

anionic detergent

A
  • ion with long non-polar alkyl tail and polar anionic sulfate head
  • present as sodium/potassium salts
  • good lather = dishwashing, laundry detergent
  • too strong for personal hygiene

hardwater:
- forms soluble complexes with Mg2+ and Ca2+
- no scum but efficacy decreased –> solved with phosphate buffers

71
Q

cationic detergent

A
  • ion with non-polar alkyl tail and a polar cationic trimethylammonium head
  • present as chloride or bromide salts
  • not as harsh as anionic
  • shampoo and antiseptics, disinfectants
  • reduces tangling
  • biocidal - kills microorganisms

hardwater:
- no effect
- positively charge

72
Q

biocidal

A

kills microorganisms

73
Q

non-ionic detergent

A
  • molecule with non-polar alkyl tail and polar repeating polyethylene glycol head
  • always end in OH
  • uncharged head but still polar
  • less lather
  • shampoo conditioner

hardwater:
- no effect, neutral so it doesnt react

74
Q

hard water

A

impure water that contains Ca2+ and Mg2+

75
Q

micelles

A

spherical arrangements of surfactant molecules with hydrophobic tails trailing centre and hydrophillic heads facing outwards

76
Q

question structure for soaps

A
  • structure: hydrophilic polar head + hydrophobic tail non polar
  • surfactant dissolves in water
  • orientation: surfactant molecules align themselves such that the non-polar alkyl tails stick into the substances forming dispersion forces and the polar heads face outwards forming ion dipole forces with the water
  • agitation: when surface is agitated, through virgourous scrubbing, small droplets of greae are lifted off the surface and momentarily suspended in water where incomplete micelles form with the polar heads facing outwards and on-polar tails sticking to the oil
  • as oil droplets become smaller complete micelles are formed
  • micelles repel each other by their spherical outer surface of negative charges and disperse throughout the water
  • emulsification , electrostatic repulsion stops the oils from coming together, but two immiscible liquids are made to mix by the action of the emulsifier
  • drained away

chemistry (9 decks)

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