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Psychology 2250-004 > Module 6 How Do Drugs and hormones Influence Brain and Behavior > Flashcards

Module 6 How Do Drugs and hormones Influence Brain and Behavior Flashcards

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1
Q

Principles of Psychopharmacology

A
  • Psychopharmacology
  • Drugs
  • Psychactive Drugs
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2
Q

Psychopharmacology

A

-Study of how drugs affect the nervous system

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3
Q

Drugs

A

-Chemical compounds administered to produce a desire change in the body

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4
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A

-Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior and is used to manage neuropsychological illness

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5
Q

Drug Routes into the Nervous System

-Routes of Drug Administration

A
  • To be effective, a psychoactive drug has to reach its nervous-system target
  • Drugs can be administered orally, inhaled into the lungs, administered through rectal suppositories, absorbed from patches applied to the skin or mucous membranes, or injected into the bloodstream, into a muscle, or even into the brain
  • Oral administration is easy and convenient but has the most barriers to the brain
  • There are a fewer barriers for a drug destined for the brain if the drug is injected directly into the bloodstream
  • The fewest barriers are encountered if a psychoactive drug is injected directly into the brain
  • With each barrier epominated en route to the brain, the dosage of the drug can be reduced by a factor of 10
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6
Q

Revisiting the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

A

-The body presents a number of barriers to the internal movement of drugs
~Cell membranes
~Capillary walls
~The placenta
-BBB helps prevent most substances, including drugs, from entering the brain via the bloodstream
-Endothelia cells in capillaries located throughout the body are not tightly joined; it’s easy for substances to move into and out of the bloodstream
-Endothelial cell walls in the brain are fused to form “tight junctions,” so most substances cannot squeeze between them
-Endothelial cells of brain capillaries are surrounded by the end feet of astrocytes attached to the capillary wall, coving about 80% of it
-Glial cells provide a route for the exchange of food and waste between capillaries and the brain’s extracellular fluid and form the other cells

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7
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier-Free Brain Regions

A
  • Area Postrema
  • Pineal Gland
  • Pituitary Gland
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8
Q

Area Postrema

A

-Allow toxic substances in the blood to trigger a vomiting response

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9
Q

Pineal Gland

A

-Enables hormones to reach it an modulate the day-night cycles controlled by this structure

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10
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

-Entry of chemicals that influence pituitary hormones

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11
Q

Gaining Access to the Brain

A

-Small, uncharged molecules (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are fat soluble and can freely cross the BBB
-Larger, charged molecules (glucose, amino acids, fat) must be actively transported across the BBB
-Difficulty developing drugs of the brain
~Estimated 98% of all drugs that may affect brain function and have therapeutic use, cannot cross the BBB

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12
Q

How the Body Eliminates Drugs

A
  • Drugs are broken down (catabolize) in the kidneys, liver and intestines
  • Drugs are then excreted in urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air
  • Some substances that cannot be removed may build up in the body and become toxic
  • The liver is especially active in catabolizing drugs
  • Enzymes called the cytochrome P450 enzyme family are involved in drug catabolism
  • Liver is capable of catabolizing many different drugs into forms that are more easily excreted from the body
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13
Q

Drug Action as Synapses

A

-Most psychoactive drugs exert their effects by influencing synaptic chemical signaling
~Agonist
~Antagonist

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14
Q

Agonist

A

-Substance that ENHANCES the function of a synapse

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15
Q

Antagonist

A

-Substance the BLOCKS/Decreases the function of a synapse

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16
Q

Drug Action as Synapses

-7 processes

A

-Synthesis of the neurotransmitter
~In the cell body, axon, or terminal
-Storage of the neurotransmitter in granules or in vesicles
-Release of the transmitter from presynaptic terminal
-Receptor interaction in the postsynaptic membrane
-Inactivation of excess neurotransmitter at the synapse
-Reuptake into the presynaptic terminal
-Degradation of excess neurotransmitter

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17
Q

Example of Drug Action

-ACh Synapse

A

-Agonists excite muscles, increasing muscle tone
-Antagonists inhibit muscles, decreasing muscle tone
~Drugs affect synthesis release, binding to the postsynaptic receptor, breakdown or inactivation

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18
Q

Tolerance

A

-In tolerance, as in habituation, a learned behavior results when a response to a stimulus weakens with repeated presentation
~Metabolic tolerance
~Cellular tolerance
~Learned Tolerance

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19
Q

Metabolic tolerance

A

-Increase in number of enzymes used to break down substance

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20
Q

Cellular Tolerance

A

-Activities of brain cells adjust to minimize effects of the substance

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21
Q

Learned Tolerance

A

-People learn to cope with being intoxicated

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22
Q

Sensitization

A
  • The occasional drug-taker may experience an increased responsiveness to successive equal doses
  • Whereas tolerance generally develops with repeated use of a drug, sensitization is much more likely to develop with occasional use
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23
Q

Sensitization

-Experiment 1

A

-Every 3 or 4 days, investigators injected rats and found that their motor activities- sniffing, rearing, and walking- were more vigorous with each administration of the same dose of the drug

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24
Q

Sensitization

-Experiment 2

A

-Sensitization is not always characterized by an increase in an emitted behavior but may also manifest as progressive decrease in behavior

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25
Q

Sensitization Relevance

A

-For many drug therapies, a drug must be taken for a number of weeks before it has beneficial effects
~Sensitization may underline development of the drug’s beneficial effects
-Before a person becomes addicted to a drug, must have experiences with the drug away from the home environment
~Sensitization may related to the development of drug dependence

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26
Q

Classification of Psychoactive Drugs

A

-One can classify a drug by its most pronounced behavioral or psychoactive effect
~Antianxiety Agents and Sedation Hypnotics
~Antipsychotic Agents
~Antidepressants/ Mood Stabilizers
~Opioid Analgesics
~Psychotropics
*Many drugs for mental illness were accidental discoveries

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27
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

A 
-Barbituates
~Produced sedation and sleep (alcohol)
~Can also produce general anesthesia, coma, and death
-Benzodiazepines
~Minor tranquilizer
~Antianxiety agents
*Drugs that reduce anxiety (Valium)
*Often used for temporary purpose (coping with stress due to a death in family)
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28
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

-Tolerance

A

-Larger dose is required to maintain the drug’s initial effect

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29
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

-Cross-Tolerance

A

-Response to a novel drug is reduced because of tolerance developed in response to a related drug
-Suggests that the two drugs affect a common nervous system target
~Example
*Batbituates and benzodiazepines affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA

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30
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

-The GABAa Receptor

A

-Activation produces an influx of chloride (Cl-) ions, which hyperpolarizes the neurons (IPSP)

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31
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

-The GABAa Receptor Has Two sites

A
  • Sedative-Hypnotic Site

- Antianxiety Site

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32
Q

Sedative-Hypnotic Site

A

-Alcohol and Barbituates

~Decrease influences Cl- influx

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33
Q

Antianxiety Site

A

-Benzodiazepines
~Enhances binding effects of GABA
~Effect is dependent upon amount of GABA present
*Harder to overdoes

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34
Q

Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics

-Dissociative Anesthetics

A

-Group of sedative-hypnotics developed as anesthetics
-Produce altered states and hallucinations
-Example
~GHB, flunitrazepam, ketamine
~”Date rape” drugs

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35
Q

Antipsychotic agents

A

-Psychosis is applied to behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia
-Antipsychotic drugs have improved functioning of schizophrenia patients and reduced number housed in institutions
-First-generation antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol
~Drug that blocks the D2 DA receptor
~Produce symptoms reminiscent of Parkinson’s disease
-Second-generation antipsychotics such as clozapine
~Weakly block D2 receptors but also block serotonin 5-HT2 (serotonin) receptors
~Affect motivation and reduce agitation but may result in weight gain

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36
Q

Antipsychotic Agents

-Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

A

-Proposal that schizophrenia symptoms are due to excess activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine
-Evidence
~Antipsychotic drugs block D2 receptors
~Amphetamine promotes release of DA and can also produce symptoms similar to schizophrenia

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37
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  • Two other psychotropic drugs that produce schizophrenia-like symptoms, including hallucinations and out of body experiences, are phencyclidine (PCP or angel dust) and ketamine (special K)
  • Both drugs exert part of their action by blocking glutamate receptors, suggesting the involvement of excitatory glutamate synapses in schizophrenia
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38
Q

Antidepressants and Mood Stabilizers

-Major Depression

A 
-Mood disorder characterized by
~Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt
~Disruption of normal eating habits
~Sleep disturbances
~general slowing of behavior
~Frequent thought of suicide
-Common
~6% pf adult population
-Twice as common in women as in men
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39
Q

Antidepressants

-Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors

A

-Block the enzyme MAO from degrading neurotransmitters such as DA, NE, and 5-HT2 (serotonin)

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40
Q

Antidepressants

-Tricyclon Antidepressants

A

-First-generation antidepressants with a chemical structure characterized by three rings that block serotonin reuptake transporter proteins

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41
Q

Antidepressants

-Second-Generation Antidepressants

A

-Action is similar to first-generation antidepressants, but more selective in action on the serotonin reuptake transporter proteins
~Also called atypical antidepressants

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42
Q

Antidepressants

-Selective serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

A

-Block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic terminal

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43
Q

Antidepressants

A

-Although antidepressants affect synapses very quickly, their antidepressive actions take weeks to develop
-Prozac, an SSRI, enhances neurogenesis in the hippocampus
~Part of therapeutic effect?
-20% of patients with depression fail to respond to antidepressants, suggesting that depression can likely have many causes

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44
Q

Mood Stabilizers

A

-Used to treat
~Bipolar disorder
*Characterized by period of depression alternating with normal periods and periods of intense excitation
-Mood stabilizers mute the intensity of one pole of the disorder, making the other pole less likely to occur
-Mechanisms are not well understood
~Lithium may stimulate neuronal repair
~Valproate may stimulate GABA activity

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45
Q

Opioid Analgesics

A

-Opioid
~Compound that binds to a group of brain receptors also sensitive to morphine
-Two natural sources of opioids
~Opium
*Used for thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, sleep, and relief from diarrhea and coughing
~The Brains
*Peptides in the body that have opioid-like effects are collectively called endorphins (endogenous morphines)

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46
Q

Opioid Analgesics

A

-Endorphins and their receptors are found in many regions of the brain and spinal cord
-Natural (morphine) and synthetic (heroin, oxymorphone, methadone, oxycodone, fentanyl) opioids mimic the endorphins
~Most synthetic opioids are prescribed for clinical use in pain management
~All opioids are potently addictive, and abuse of prescription opioids is growing more common

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47
Q

Opioid Analgesics

-Endorphin

A
  • Peptide hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and may be associated with feeling of pain or pleasure
  • Mimicked by opiate drugs such as morphine, heroin, opium and codeine
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48
Q

Opioid Analgesics

-Morphine acts on three opioid-receptor classes

A
  • Mu, delta, and kappa

- Mu receptor is critical for morphine’s effect on pain and for its addictive properties

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49
Q

Opioid Analgesics

-Nalorphine and Naxolone

A

-Drugs that act as antagonists at opioid receptors
-Competitive inhibitors
~Compete with opioids for neuronal receptors

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50
Q

Opioid Analgesics

-Heroin

A

-Synthesized from morphine
-More fat soluble and penetrates the BBB faster than morphine
~Competitive inhibitors can be used to treat opioid addiction after the addicted person has recovered from withdrawal symptoms

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51
Q

Psychotropics

-Behavioral Stimulants

A
  • Increase motor behavior and elevate a person’s mood and level of alertness
  • Rapid administration of behavioral stimulants is most likely to be associated with addiction
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52
Q

Behavioral Stimulants

-Amphetamine

A

-Blocks DA reuptake transporter, leaving more dopamine available in the synaptic cleft
-Stimulates release of DA from presynaptic membrane
~Both mechanisms increase the amount of DA available in synapses to stimulate DA receptors

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53
Q

Amphetamine

-Use

A
  • To treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
  • Treatment for asthma
  • Weight-loss aid
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54
Q

Amphetamine derivative

-Methamphetamine

A

-Relatively inexpensive, yet, potentially devastation, drug

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55
Q

behavioral Stimulants

-Cocaine

A

-Obtained from coca plant
-Blocks DA reuptake
-Powder is snorted or injected
-Crack vaporizes at low temp. and the vapors are inhaled (smoked)
-Derivates such as Novocaine are used as local anesthetics
~Reduce a cell’s permeability to Na+ ions and so reduce nerve conduction

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56
Q

Psychotropic Drugs

A

-Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes and can produce hallucination

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57
Q

Psychotropic Drugs

-Five Main Types

A 
-ACh
~Atropine, nicotine
-Anandamide
~THC
-Glutamate
~PCP, ketamine
-Norepinephrine
~Mescaline
-Serotonin
~LSD, psilocybin, ecstasy
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58
Q

Psychotropics

-General Stimulants

A

-Drugs that cause a general increase in the metabolic activity of cells

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59
Q

Psychotropics

-Caffeine

A
  • Inhibits the enzyme that normally breaks down the second messenger cyclic AMP
  • Increase in cAMP leads to an increase in glucose production within cells, which makes more energy available and allows for higher rates of cellular activity
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60
Q

Disinhibition Theory

A

-Alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortex (the region of the brain that controls judgment), while sparing subcortical structures (those areas of the brain responsible for more-primitive instincts, such as desire)
~”Too drunk to know better”
-Limitation
~Behavior under the influence of alcohol often differs depending upon the context

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61
Q

Alcohol Myopia (nearsightedness)

A

-Under the influence of alcohol, people respond to a restricted set of immediate and prominent cues and ignore more remote cues and potential consequences
-Immediate and prominent cues will differ according to the context
~Explain many lapses in judgment that lead to risky behavior, including aggression, date rape, and reckless driving while intoxicated

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62
Q

Addiction and Dependence

-Substance Abuse

A

-Pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their lives

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63
Q

Addiction and Dependence

-Addiction (aka substance dependence)

A
  • Persons are physically dependent on a drug in addition to abusing it
  • They have developed tolerance for the drug, so an addict requires increased doses to obtain the desired effect
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64
Q

Addiction and Dependence

-Withdrawal Symptoms

A

-Physical and psychological behaviors displayed by an addict when drug use ends
~Example
*Muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, convulsions, death
-Time-course
~Withdrawal symptoms from alcohol and morphine start within several hours of last dose and intensify over several days before subsiding

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65
Q

Addiction and Dependence

-Psychomotor Activation

A

-Increase behavioral and cognitive activity
-At certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control
-Occurs with many drugs
~Is there a common target (such as DA neurons) for abused drugs?

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66
Q

Addiction and Dependence

-important Role of DA in Drug Addiction

A
  • Rugs that are abused increase mesolimbic DA activity, either directly or indirectly
  • Drugs that blunt abuse and addiction decrease mesolimbic DA activity
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67
Q

Sex Differences in Addiction

A

-Females twice as sensitive to drugs on average
~Smaller body size, hormonal differences
-Females only slightly less likely to become addicted to some drugs
-Females more likely to abuse certain drugs
~Nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, opioids, cannabinoids, caffeine, PCP

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68
Q

Explaining and treating Drug Abuse

A

-Pleasure and Dependence
~Habitual drug users initially experience pleasure but then endure psychological and physiological withdrawal symptoms as the drug wears off
-However, an addict may abstain from a drug for months, long after any withdrawal symptoms have abated, yet still be drawn back to using

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69
Q

Wanting-and-Liking Theory

-Incentive-Sensitization Theory

A

-Wanting (craving) and liking (pleasure) may be produced by different parts of the brain
~Wanting
*Sensitizes with repeated drug use; craving increases
*Mesolimbic DA system
~Liking
*Tolerance develops with repeated drug use; pleasure decreases
*Opioid neurons
-Wanting a drug and liking a drug go in opposite directions with repeated drug use
-Wanting (craving) is associated with drug cues

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70
Q

Neural basis of Addiction

A
  • Decision to take a drug is made in the frontal cortex
  • Drug activates opioid systems related to pleasurable experiences
  • Wanting drugs springs from activity in the dopaminergic system
  • Voluntary control of drug taking gives way to unconscious processes- a “habit” (striatum)
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71
Q

Why Doesn’t Everyone Abuse Drugs?

-Genetics?

A
  • Despite some evidence of a genetic contribution, no gene or set of genes related to alcoholism have been found
  • Any satisfactory explanation of drug abuse will require genetic and learning components
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72
Q

Why Doesn’t Everyone Abuse Drugs?

-Personality Traits?

A

-Unusual risk-taking may be trait common to drug abusers

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73
Q

Epigentics

A
  • Addictive drugs can influence gene regulation
  • Addictive drugs can selectively turn off gene related to voluntary control and turn on genes related to behaviors susceptible to addiction
  • Changes are relatively permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations
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74
Q

Treating Drug Abuse

A

-The best approaches recognize that addiction will be a life-long problem for most people
~Thus, addiction must be treated in the same way as other individual and medical problems are treated

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75
Q

Can Drugs Cause Brain Damage?

A

-Many substances, even natural ones such as glutamate, can be neurotoxins
-It is difficult to determine if recreational drugs are harmful
~Is it the drug itself or factors associated with drug use?
~Do drugs initiate problems or aggravate preexisting condition?
~Hard to isolate which ingredients may be the harmful ones

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76
Q

Can Drugs Cause Brain Damage?

-Drugs that have been associated with brain damage or cognitive impairment

A 
-Amphetamines
~MDMA (ecstasy)
*Serotonin neurons
~Methamphetamines
*DA neurons
-Cocaine
~Blocks cerebral blood flow
-Phencyclidine (PCP or "angle dust")
~Blocks NMDA receptors
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77
Q

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A
  • Doses of ecstasy approximating those taken by human users result in the degeneration of very fine serotonergic nerve terminals
  • In monkeys, the terminal loss may be permanent
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78
Q

Can Drugs Cause Brain Damage?

-Drugs that have NOT been associated with long-lasting brain damage

A
  • LSP
  • Marijuana
  • Opiates
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79
Q

Hormones

-Hierarchical Control of Hormones

A

-Hormones affect almost every neuron in the brain

~Hormone -> Neurons -> Genes -> Proteins

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80
Q

Hierarchical Control of Hormones

-Hypothalamus

A

-Produces neurohormones to stimulate the pituitary gland

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81
Q

Hierarchical Control of Hormones

-Pituitary Gland

A

-Secretes releasing hormones to influence target endocrine glands

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82
Q

Hierarchical Control of Hormones

-Target Endocrine Glands

A

-Release appropriate hormones into the blood to act on target organs and tissues

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83
Q

Classes and Functions of Hormones

-Steroid Hormones

A

-Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol
~Example
*Gonadal (sex) hormones, thyroid

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84
Q

Classes and Functions of Hormones

-Peptide Hormones

A

-Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell’s physiology
~Example
*Insulin, growth hormone

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85
Q

Classes and Functions of Hormones

-Homeostatic Hormones

A

-Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulation of physiological systems
~Insulin

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86
Q

Classes and Functions of Hormones

-Gonadal (sex) Hormones

A

-Control reproductive functions; sexual development and behavior

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87
Q

Classes and Functions of Hormones

-Glucocorticoids

A

-Secreted in time of stress; important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

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88
Q

Homeostatic Hormones

-Of Intracellular and Extracellular environments are essential to life

A

-Diabetus mellitus
~Caused by a failure of the pancreas to secrete enough (or any) insulin
~Hyperglycemia
*High blood-glucose levels; cells are not using glucose and therefore are not able to function properly
~Hypoglycemia
*Low blood-glucose levels

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89
Q

Gonadal Hormones

-Sex Hormones Begin to Affect Us Before We are Born and Continue to Affect Us Throughout Our Life

A

-Organizational Hypothesis
~Proposal that actions of hormones during development alter tissue differentiation
~Example
*Testosterone masculinizes the brain

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90
Q

Gonadal Hormones

-Sex Hormones Contribute to Brain Function

A
  • Male brain is slightly larger than females after correcting for body size
  • Right hemisphere is larger than the left hemisphere in men
  • Female brains have higher rates of cerebral blood flow and glucose utilization
  • Parts of the corpus callosum are larger in women
  • Language areas of the brain are somewhat larger in women
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91
Q

Gonadal Hormones

-Contribute to Differences in Cognitive Performance

A

-Men tend to excel on spatial tasks whereas women tend to excel on verbal tasks
-Performance of women differs during the course of the menstrual cycle
~Low female sex hormones
*Better spatial performance
~High female sex hormones
*Better verbal performance
-Differences between pre- and postmenopausal women, and during various stages of pregnancy

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92
Q

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids

A

-A class of synthetic hormones related to the male sex hormone testosterone that have both muscle-building (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effects

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93
Q

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids

-Health Risks

A
  • Body reduces production of testosterone reducing male fertility
  • Increased aggression
  • Increased risk of heart attack and stroke
  • Compromised liver and kidney function
  • Masculinization of female users
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94
Q

Glucocorticoids and Stress

-Stressor

A

-A stimulus that challenges the body’s homeostasis and triggers arousal

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95
Q

Glucocorticoids and Stress

-Stress Response

A

-The physiological and behavioral arousal and any attempt to reduce the stress
-Two sequences
~Fast-acting
*Primes the body immediately for fight or flight (epinephrine)
~Slow-acting
*Both mobilizes the body’s resources to confront a stressor and repairs stress-related damage (cortisol)

96
Q

Ending a Stress Response

A

-Normally, stress response are brief
-Stress responses are turned on and off in the brain
-Sapolsky (2005)
~Hippocampus is well-suited to detecting cortisol in the blood and instructing the hypothalamus to reduce blood-cortisol levels
~Too much cortisol will damage neurons in the hippocampus
-Vicious cycle involving prolonged stress, cortisol levels, and hippocampal functioning
-Glucocorticoid-receptor density in the hippocampi of suicide victims who have been sexually abused in childhood was decreased compared to control subjects
-Decrease in receptors and in glucocorticoid mRNA suggest that childhood abuse induces epigenetic changes in the expression of the glucocorticoid genes
-Decrease in the glucocorticoid receptors presumably render the hippocampus less able to end stress responses

97
Q

Adderall and Ritalin

A

-Many college students think they are harmless, but misuse can carry serious health risks including mental problems
~Depression
~Bipolar disorder
~Incidents of aggression or hostile behavior, and addiction

98
Q

Attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD)

A

-Developmental disorder characterized by core behavioral symptoms including impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention

99
Q

Methylphenidate and Dextroamphetamine

A

-Schedule II drugs, both drugs share the pharmacological properties of amphetamine
~Prolonging and increasing DA levels in the synapse by reversing its transporter`

100
Q

Psycopharmacology

A

-Stud of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

101
Q

How drugs affect the brain for good or for ill

A

-The sheer number of neurotransmitters, receptors, and possible sites of drug action is astounding
~Every drug act at many sites in the body and brain and affects more than one neurotransmitter system
-Every drug has a primary or intended action as well as secondary or unintended actions
-Individual differences
~Genetic makeup, adverse childhood experiences, sex, age height, weight- all influence how drugs affect people

102
Q

Psychoactive Drug

A
  • Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior; is used to manage neurorphsycological illness; and may be taken recreationally
  • Depending on the dose and repeated usage, can act as toxins, producing alterations in behavior, brain damage, or even death
103
Q

The route of administration

A
  • The way a drugs enters and passes through the body to reach its target
  • Drugs can be administered orally, inhaled into the lungs, administered rectally in a suppository, absorbed from patches applied to the skin or muscous membrane; or injected into the bloodstream, muscle, or even directly into the brain
104
Q

Oral Administration

A

-Easy and convenient but is nonetheless a complex route
-To reach the bloodstream, an ingested drug must first be absorbed through the lining of the stomach or small intestine
~Drugs in liquid form are absorbed more readily
~Drugs in solid form are not absorbed unless the stomach’s gastric juices can dissolve them
~Some drugs may be destroyed or altered by enzymes in the GI tract’s microbiome
-Weather a drug is an acid or a base also influences its absorption
-Once absorbed the drug must enter the bloodstream
~The leg of this journey requires additional properties, because the blood has a higher water concentration, the drug must be water-soluble; then diluted by the approximate 6 litters of blood that circulates through an adult body
~Once the drug leaves the bloodstream, the body’s roughly 35 litters of extracellular fluid further dilute it

105
Q

Patches

A

-Some small-molecule drugs easily pernitrates the skin barrier

106
Q

Gases or Aerosols

A
  • Penetrate the cell linings of the respiratory tracts very easily and are absorbed across these membranes into the blood stream almost immediately after they are inhales
  • They reach the bloodstream by circumventing the barriers in the digestive system or skin
  • Drugs like nicotine, cocaine, and TCH, are similarly absorbed
107
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A
  • Is injected directly into the brain

- Is normally carried out only by medical professionals in a sterile setting

108
Q

Each obstacle with eliminated en route to the brain

A

-Can be reduced by a factor of 10
-Example
~1 milligram is equal to one-thousandth of a milligram of amphetamine

109
Q

The Body presents barriers to the internal movement of drugs

A

-Cell membranes, capillary walls, and the placenta

110
Q

The Brain-blood barrier

A

-Tight junction between the cells of blood vessels found in the brain, blocks passage of most water soluble substances
-Protects the brain’s ionic balance and denies many neurochemicals passage into the brain, where they can disrupt communication between neurons
-It protects the brain from the effects of many circulating hormones and from toxic and infectious substances
~Injury and disease can sometimes compromise the integrity of the BBB, letting pathogens through

111
Q

The brain has rich capillary networks

A

-Neurons is no farther than about 50 micrometers from a capillary
-Are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells
~In most parts of the body endothelial ells are not fused to the capillary wall, so substances can pass through the cleft between the cells
-In the brain endothelial cells wall are fused to form tight injunctions, so molecules of most substances cannot squeeze between them

112
Q

Astrocytes

A

-Provide a route for the exchange of food and waste between capillaries and the brain’s extracellular fluid, as well as, from there to other cells

113
Q

Cells of capillary walls in three brain regions

A

-Lack a BBB
~The pituitary gland
~Area postrema
~Pineal gland

114
Q

The Pituitary Gland

A

-Is a source of many hormones secreted into the blood, and their release is triggered in part by other hormones carried to the pituitary by the blood

115
Q

The absence of the BBB in the brainstem’s area postrema

A

-Allows toxic substances in the blood to enter that area and be detected by those neurons, which trigger vomiting to expel any ingested toxins that remain in the stomach

116
Q

Pineal Gland

A

-Also lacks a BBB, enabling hormones to reach it and modulate the day-night cycles it controls

117
Q

Fuel Molecules

A
  • Oxygen and glucose for fuel
  • Amino acids to build proteins
  • Reach brain cells from the blood, just as carbon dioxide and other waste products are excreted from brain cells and are carried away by the blood
118
Q

Molecules of these vital substance cross the BBB in two ways

A
  • Small molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and lipid-soluble molecules can pass through the endothelial membranes
  • Complex molecules of glucose, amino acids, and other food components are carried across the membrane by active transport systems or ion pumps (transporter proteins specialized to convey a particular substance)
119
Q

Catabolism

A

-The body begins to break the drugs down , a process that takes place in several areas of the body, including the kidneys, liver, and the intestines

120
Q

Excretes drugs

A

-Through urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air

121
Q

The Liver

A
  • Especially active in catabolizing drugs
  • Organ house a family of enzymes involving in drug catabolizing called the cytochrome P450 enzyme family
  • Is capable of breaking down many different drugs into forms more easily excreted from the body
122
Q

The major steps in neurotransmission at a synapses- each a potential site of drug action

A
  • Synthesis of the neurotransmitter in the cell body, the axon, or the terminal
  • Packing and storage of the neurotransmitter in vesicles
  • Release of the transmitter from the terminal’s presynaptic membrane into the synapse
  • Receptor interaction in the postsynaptic membrane, as the transmitter acts on an embedded receptor
  • Inactive by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal for reuse or
  • Inactive by enzymatic degradation of excess neurotransmitter
123
Q

Agnoist

A
  • Substance that enhances neurotransmitter function

- Drug that increase neurotransmission

124
Q

Antagonist

A
  • Substance that blocks neurotransmitter function

- Drug the decrease neurotransmission

125
Q

ACh Synapse

-Agnoist

A

-Excite muscles, increasing muscle tone

126
Q

ACh Synapse

-Antagonist

A

-Inhibit muscle, decreasing muscle tones

127
Q

Two toxins that affect ACh synapse

A

-Black widow venom
~Acts as an agonist by promoting ACh release to excess
~Do NOT inject enough drug to paralyze a person, though a victim may feel some muscle weakness
-Botulinum toxin (Botulin)
~Is the poisonous agent in improperly processed canned goods
~Antagonist, blocks ACh release, and the effect can last for weeks to months
~Severe poisoning can paralyze both movement and breathing and so cause death

128
Q

Botulin

A

-Has medical use, injected into a muscle, it can selectively paralyze the muscle, making it useful for blocking excessive and enduring musclar twitching or contractions
~Including the spasms that make movement difficult- such as in people with cerebral palsy
-Under the name Botox
~Is also used cosmetically to paralyze facial muscles that cause wrinkling

129
Q

Nicotine

A

-Similar enough to ACh to allow nicotine to fit into ACh receptors’ binding sites, where is causes the associated ion channel to open
~Therefore acts an an agonist

130
Q

Curare

A

-Acts as an ACh antagonist by occurring cholinergic receptors, but does not cause the ion channel to open, and it also prevents ACh from binding to the receptors
-Acts quickly and is cleared from the body in a few minutes
~Large doses, however; arrest movement and breathing for a period sufficient to result in death
-Skeletal muscles are more sensitive to curare-like drugs than are respiratory muscles; an appropriate dose paralyzes an animal’s movement temporarily but allows it to breathe

131
Q

Physostigmine

A

-Large doses can be toxic because they produce excessive excitation of the neuromuscular synapses, disrupting movement and breathing
-In small doses, however; is used to treat myasthenia gravis
~A condition of muscular weakness in which muscles receptors are less than normally responsive to ACh
-Action is short lived, lasting only a few minutes or at most an half hour

132
Q

Organophosphates

A

-Bind irreversibly to AChE and consequently allow a toxic buildup of ACh in the synaptic cleft
-Many insecticides and chemical weapons
~Insects use glutamate as a neurotransmitter at the nerve-muscle junction, but elsewhere in their nervous system, they have nicotinic receptors
*Poison insects by acting centrally, but they poison chordate by acting peripherally as well

133
Q

Tolerance

A

-Decrease in response to a drug with a passage over time

134
Q

Three Types of Tolerance

A
  • Metabolic
  • Cellular
  • Learned
135
Q

Metabolic Tolerance

A
  • The number of enzymes needed to break down alcohol in the liver, blood, and brain increases
  • As a result, any alcohol consumed is metabolized more quickly, so blood alcohol levels fall
136
Q

Cellular Tolerance

A
  • Brain cell activates adjust to minimize the effect of alcohol in the blood
  • Cellular tolerance can help explain why the behavioral signs of intoxication may be so low despite a relatively high blood alcohol level
137
Q

Learned Tolerance

A
  • Explains a drop in outward signs of intoxication

- As people learn to cope with the demands of living under the influence of alcohol, they may not appear intoxicated

138
Q

Sensitation

A

-Increase responsiveness to successive equal doses
-Is much more likely to develop with intermittent use
-Is not always characterized by an increase in an elicited behavior but may also manifest as a progressive decrease in behavior
Lies part in changes at the synapses
-Can be associated with changes in receptor number on the postsynaptic membrane, in the rate of transmitter metabolism in the synaptic space, in transmitter reuptake by the presynaptic membrane, and in the number and size of synapses

139
Q

Sensitization is relevant to understanding some psychopharmacological effects of drugs

A
  • Many drugs therapies, including those for the psychiatric disorder schizophrenia, must be taken for several weeks before they produce beneficial effects. Possibly sensitization underlies the development of these beneficial effect
  • Sensitization is related to drug dependence, Before a person becomes dependent on or addictive to a drug, he or she must be sensitized by numerous experiences with the drug away from the home environment
  • Life experiences, especially stressful ones, can produce effects resembling sensitization that prime the nervous system for addiction
140
Q

Zoopharmacpgonsy

A

-Behavior in which non-human animals self-medicate

141
Q

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM)

A

-Offers classification system for diagnosing neurological use and behavioral disorders, including those caused by drug use

142
Q

Most psychoactive drugs have three names

A
  • Chemical
  • Generic
  • Branded
143
Q

Chemical name

A

-Describes a drug’s structure

144
Q

Generic Name

A

-Is nonproprietary and is spelled lowercase

145
Q

Proprietary or Branded Name

A

-Given by the pharmaceutical company that sells is, is capitalized

146
Q

Caffeine

A

-Has a very similar structure to adenosine and binds to adenosine receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the effect of adenosine and thus acting as an adenosine antagonist
-Making us feel alert and peppy
-It inhibits an enzyme that ordinarily break down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
-Promotes DA and ACh, which endows caffeine with its stimulant effect the improve reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination
-Repeated daily use produces a mild form of drug dependence
~When an individual stops using caffeine, they experiences sleepiness, headache, and irritability
-Withdrawal symptoms are avoided by continuing to consume caffeine daily but will fade with time (4 to 7 days) if the individual gives up caffeine altogether
-Acts as a natural pesticide, discouraging or killing herbivorous insects and inhibiting the invasion and colonization of pathogenic fungi

147
Q

cAMP

A

-Leads to increase glucose production, making more energy available and allowing higher rates of cellular activity

148
Q

Nicotine (nicotiana tabacum)

A

-Functions as an antiherbivore chemical and was widely used as an insecticide
-Found in small amounts in potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplant
-At low doses, is a stimulant
-At high doses, it dampens neuronal activity
-Tobacco smoker report feeling of relaxation, sharpness, calmness, and alertness
-Within a few seconds nicotine stimulates ACh and several other neurotransmitters, including NE, EP, arginine vasopressin, 5-HT2, endorphins, and DA
~Release of DA that provides the reinforcing aspect
-Dependence involves both psychological and physical aspects
~Lead to heightened anxiety, irritability, craving, inability to feel pleasurer, and tremors
-Potentially lethal poison
~The total amount of nicotine in one cigarette, if injected, can be lethal to n inexperienced person
-Respiratory disease, lung cancer, and related negative effects are caused by the harmful chemicals found in tobacco smoke rather than in nicotine itself
-Vaping, in which nicotine can be inhaled without tobacco smoke
~Long-term health effects of e-cigarettes are likely less serious than those of tobacco smoke but are unknown
-A risk factor of Alzheimer disease, cholinergic agonists are medically prescribed to treat it
~ACh inhibitors, such as tacrine (cognex), raise ACh level and may provide a small benefit although no medication has been clearly shown to delay or halt the progression of Alzheimer disease

149
Q

GABAregic Agnoists

A

-Reduce anxiety (low dose)
-Sedate (medium dose)
-Anesthetize or induce coma (high dose)
-Can kill (very high dose)
-GABAa receptor produces an influx of Cl- through its pore
~An influx of Cl- increases the concentration of negative charges inside the cell membrane, hyper-polarizing it and making it less likely to propagate an action potential
-GABA produces its inhibitory effect by decreasing a neuron’s firing rate
-Widespread reduction of neuronal firing underlies the behavioral effects of drugs that affect the GABAa synapse

150
Q

Benzodiazepines

A
  • Are a class of chemicals that include diazepam (valium), alprozolam (Xanax), and clonazepam (klonopin) and are medically prescribed to reduce anxiety
  • Often used by people who are having trouble coping with significant physical or mental stress (traumatic accident or a death in the family)
151
Q

Cross-tolerance

A
  • Result when the tolerance for one drug, is carried over to a different member of the drug group
  • Also suggest that benzodiazepines and alcohol act on the nervous system in similar ways
152
Q

Alcohol

A

-Is an extraordinarily popular psychoactive and recreational drug
-The fermentation of sugar into alcohol is one of humanity’s earliest biotechnologies
-Consumption has short-term psychological and psychological effects that depend on several factors
~Amount and concentration of alcohol
~Duration over which it is consumed
~The amount of food eaten
~Consumer’s weight and experience with alcohol
-Small amounts of alcohol typically cause an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and a flushing of the face
-Medium amounts results in lethargy, sedation, balance problems, and blurred vision
-High amounts lead to profound confusion, slurred speech, staggering, dizziness, and vomiting- an adaptive response to poisoning
-Very high doses cause stupor, memory loss, unconsciousness, life-threatening respiratory depression, and inhalation of vomit
-Long-term and frequent consumption of alcohol can lead to increased risk of alcoholism, a condition ruinous to individuals and families, as well as an economic burden.
~Often malnourished and typically have elevated levels of chorionic pancreatitis, liver disease, and cancer
~Result in damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as nearly every other system and organ in the body

153
Q

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)

A
  • Range of physical and intellectual impairments observed in some children born to alcoholic parents
  • Children may have abnormal facial features, such as unusually wide spacing between the eyes
  • Their brain display a range of abnormalities, from small size with abnormal gyri to abnormal clusters of cells and misaligned cells in the cortex
  • Certain behavioral symptoms; they display varying degrees of learning disabilities and low intelligence test scores, as well as hyperactivity and other social problems
  • FASD are 19 times as likely to be incarcerated as those without it
  • Effects are worse if alcohol is consumed in the first trimester, a time of organogenesis and the highest levels of DNA synthesis
  • The risks are exacerbated because many women may not yet realize that they are pregnant at this stage
154
Q

Glutamatergic System

A

-Several receptors, such as NMDA, AMPA , and kainate

155
Q

Antagonists for the NMDA

A

-Phencyclidine (PCP or “angel dust”) and ketamine (special K), can produce hallucinations and out-of-body experiences
~PCP inhibits nicotinic ACh receptors as well as inhibiting DA reuptake
*PCP is also a dopaminergic agonist, which may account for some of its psychoactive effects
-Mematine (Namenda) antagonist that is prescribed in the treatment of Alzheimer disease to prevent neuronal loss

156
Q

Dissociative Anesthetics

A

-PCP and ketamine compounds that produce feelings of detachment-dissociation-form the environment and self because they distort perceptions of sight and sound
-Ketamine is currently medically prescribed for starting and maintaining anesthesia
~Induces a trance-like state while providing pain relief, sedation, and memory loss
~Being tested as a rapid-acting antidepressant and is in phase III clinical trials for use in treating major depression disorder
~As a glutamatergic agonist, is very different from those of most modern drugs prescribed to reduce depression, which operate on serotonin and NE targets

157
Q

Dopamine Agonists Amphetamine and cocaine block the reuptake of dopamine.
Amphetamine promotes the release of dopamine.

*Sigmund Freud 1974 popularized cocaine in the late 1800’s as an antidepressant and was introduced into
Coca-Cola which once contained cocaine toxins. it’s addictive properties became so apparent that it was soon replaced with caffeine. Freud recommended it be used as an anesthetic.

A
  • Cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine
  • Medically prescribed

*amphetamine is a dopamine aga\onist and it prevents dopamine reuptake by reversing the direction of the transporter allowing dopamine to continue to interact with postsynaptic D2 receptors.

158
Q

Dopamine Antagonists Chlorpromazine occupies the dopamine site on the D2 receptor, preventing receptor activation.

*Antipspsychotic agent Thorazine can lessen schizophrenia symptoms and amphetamine or cocaine abuse can produce them. This suggest that schizophrenia may be related to, or at least in part, to excessive activity at the D2 receptor.

A

-Medically perscribed for schizophrenia and drug-induced psychosis, including chlorpromazine (Thorazine), haloperidol (Haldol), clozapine (Clozaril), and aripiprazole (Abilify, Arpiprex)

159
Q

Major depression

A

mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disrupted normal eating habits, insomnia, general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide.

  • 6% of the adult population has major depression. 30% may have a least one episode that last for months or longer.
  • Major Depression is diagnosed twice as many times in woman then in men
160
Q

monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor

A

a drug that blocks enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmittters, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins.

161
Q

tricyclic

A

drug that characterized by it’s three-ring chemical structure, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins.

162
Q

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

A

drug that blocks 5-HT reuptake into the presynaptic terminal and most commonly used to treat depression

163
Q

Serotonergic Agaonists

A

well known for altering perceptions of one’s surroundings, feelings, sensations,and images (visual hallucinations) know as “trips”. part of the counterculture movement of the 1960’s and continue to be used recreationally and spiritually used while others such as (LSD) and MD MA are produced synthetically.

164
Q

medications to treat depression (MAO) monoamine oxidase inhibitors: the tricyclics 3 ring chemical structure: and the SSRI’s

A

SSRI’s share some similarities with trucyclics and their actions

*improve neurotransmissions at the serotonin, noradrenaline , histamine, acetylcholine synapses and at the dopamine synapses as well.

165
Q

Agonist MAO inhibitor

A

inhibits the breakdown of serotonin so that more serotonin is available for release

166
Q

Agonist MAO

A

selective serotonin reuptake inhibotors and tricyclics block transporter protein for sertonin reuptake : serotonin stays in the synaptic cleft longer

167
Q

Opioidergic

A

any endogenous or exogenous compound that binds to opioid receptors to produce morphine like effects.

*psychoactive compounds have sleep like induction and pain relieving properties.
*3 sources: Isolated -morphine, codeine
Altered - heroin, oxycodone
Sythetic - fentanyl, methadone

168
Q

Potent Poppy

A

Opium is obtained from the seed pods of the opium from intern altered poppy. Morphine is extracted from Opium, and heroin is in turn altered from Morphine.
*Heroin is more potent and more fat soluble and penetrates the blood brain barrier more quickly hence the reason for faster addiction and increase in mg over a shorter period of time. Opioid alters pain perception as well as physiological changes.

169
Q

Major Depression and it’s treatments since the 1950’s

A

serotonegic drugs, several cognitive-behavioral therapies (CCT) and pharmacological approaches fail, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) electrical current is briefly passed through one hemisphere of the brain. SSRI’s are usually not recognized until the first few week of treatment. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil ,Seroxat

170
Q

Ketamine

A

glutamate antagonist given in smaller anesthetic doses produce rapid beneficial effects. Usage in patients for acute treatment of suicide as well as bipolar depression also with the risk of suicide.

171
Q

cold turkey

A

referenced to the cold skin that accompanies opioid withdrawals, in which the hair stands up and looks like turkey skin.this effect is opposite the warm skin experience after opioid use

172
Q

opioid effects

A

respiratory depression which is primary cause of death of opioid addicts.
decreased blood pressure, pupil constriction, hypothermia, drying of secretions (dry mouth) reduced sex drive, and flushed warm skin.

173
Q

Cannabinergic

A

AKA THC - alters the mood by interacting with the cannabidiol receptor found in the neurons and binds with the CB2 receptors found in the glial cells and in other body tissues.

*Cannabis - extremely low toxicity, no one has ever died from an over dose. however it may have detrimental effect on mood and memory, as well as a positive effect on mental overload.

174
Q

Anandamide and 2AG

A

produced by the body reduces anxiety and enhances forgetting, may prevent the brains memory system from being overwhelmed by all the information we are exposed to daily

175
Q

THC Canabis

A

usefulness - relieves nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing cancer chemo. who are not helped by other forms of treatments and stimulate the appetite in patients with anorexia-cachexia (wasting) syndrom

  • treats chronic pain through mechanisms that appear differnet from those in opioids . Cannabis reduced the dose of opioids in treatment of pain.
  • useful in treating glaucoma (increased pressure in the eye) spastic disorders such as MS (multiple sclerosis) disorders associated with spinal cord injuries as well as some epilepsy syndroms, helps PTSD as well
176
Q

Disinhibition Theory

A

explanation of alcohol”s effects - depressant effect on the cortical brain region that controls judgement while sparing subcortical structures that are more responsible for more instinctual behaviors, such as desire.
*alcohol depresses learned inhibitions based on reasoning and judgement while releasing the “beast” within.
*Alcohol behavior: she was too drunk to know better
:the boys had a few too many and got carried away
*Alcohol is a disinhibitor - but not always so

177
Q

Disinhibitation Theory 1969 - Craig MacAndrew & Robert Edgerton
Book: BeDrunken Comportment

A

under the influences of alcohol changes from one context to another:
Home - Polite social activity
Bar drinking - unruly and aggressive - ONE inconsistent - obnoxious gets into a fight TWO charming witty preventing a fight between two friends THIRD
depressed and worries about his problems

*Cultures -people are disinhibited when sober to become inhibited after consumption of alcohol
*people are inhibited when sober and become more inhibited when drinking.
*learned behavior under the effects of alcohol is specific to Culture, Groups and Settings.
Example: Intercourse while under the influence, the alcohol was used to facilitate the social interaction and behavior and is a time out for more conservative rules regarding dating.

178
Q

Behavioral Myopia

A

explanations for alcohol related lapse in judgement (nearsightedness)and the tendency for people under the influence respond to a restricted set of immediate prominent cues while ignoring more remote cues and possible consequences.
Immediate and prominent cues are very string, obvious and close at hand.

179
Q

Substance Abuse

A

a pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life.

180
Q

Addiction

A

A complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse; called substance use disorder per the DSM-5

  • 3 Characteristics
  • escalation: increased drug consumption through increased dose,
  • compulsive drug taking:, repetitive and persistent drug administration despite negative consequences
  • relapse: the recurrence of compulsive drug use after a period of abstinence.
181
Q

Withdrawal Symptom

A

Physical and Psychological behavior displayed by a user when drug use ends.
*sudden stop of drug of choice: symptoms may include
muscle aches, cramps, anxiety attacks,sweating, nausea, and some drugs, convulsions and death.
*morphine and alcohol can intensify over several days.

182
Q

Psychomotor Activation

A

Increased behavioral and cognitive activity so that at

certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control.

183
Q

Risk Factors

A

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE’s)
emotional, physical and sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect, mental illness of household member, witnessing violence against one’s mother, substance abuse by a household member, parental separation or divorce,and incarceration of a household member.
each ACE increases the likely hood 7-10 times more
to report drug use problems and addiction.
*90 % of individuals who have experiences 5 or more ACE’s have not become addicted to drugs.

184
Q

population

A

*woman are twice as sensitive to drugs as are men.
*woman surpass males in the incidence of addictions to many drugs .
*woman are more likely than men to abuse nicotine, alcohol, cocaine,amphetamine, opioids, cannabis, caffeine,and PCP.
Woman begin to regularly administer psychoactive drugs at lower doses than do men, women’s use escalates more rapidly, and women are a greater risk for relapse after abstinence.

185
Q

wanting the liking theory

A

Explanation holding that when a drug is associated
with certain cues, the cues themselves elicit desire for the drug; also called incentive sensitization theory.

*

186
Q

hedonia hypothesis

A

the pleasure “rush” supposedly to a variety of impulse control disorders such as overeating, gambling, and repeated drug taking.

*problem: initial pleasurable experience wears off with repeated drug taking and can become aversive and the user continues to take the drug.
over time repeated drug exposure, the pleasurable or hedonic experience becomes dissociated from the drug taking.

*there are separate brain circuits for pleasure (liking)and for repeating behaviors (wanting)

187
Q

wanting and liking theory

A

wanting and liking are produces in different brain systems

  • wanting is craving
  • liking is the pleasure the drug produces
188
Q

drug dependence

A

*the initial experience, when the drug affects a neural system associated with pleasure.
the user like the drug at this stage including liking it tot take it with a given social context.
*

189
Q

drug dependence

A

*the initial experience, when the drug affects a neural system associated with pleasure.
the user like the drug at this stage including liking it tot take it with a given social context.
*with repeated used liking the drug may decline from it initial.
*at this stage the user may begin to show tolerance to the drugs effects and may begin to increase the dosage to increase liking.
* classic conditioning again (Pavlov) example:
hypodermic needle administration of the drug, the people and room in which the drug was taken with the drug taking experience.
*the user makes the association because the drug enhances classically conditioned cues associated with the drug taking. Eventually the cues come to posses incentive salience:they induce wanting,or craving, the drug-taking experience.

190
Q

Neural Bias

A

involves multiple brain systems
*prefrontal cortex: the decision to take the drug
this area participates in most daily decisions
*endogenous opioid system: relates to the pleasurable experience when the drug is initially taken.
*Nucleus Accumbens : the wanting activity of the dopaminergic activating system

191
Q

Mesolimbic Dopamine Pathways

A

Axons of neurons in the midbrain ventral tegmentum project to the basal ganglia,including the nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus.

  • when drug takers encounter cues associated with drug taking this system becomes active releasing dopamine.
  • Example: when a rat is placed in an environment where it anticipates a favorite food or sex, investigators record dopamine increases in the striatum.
192
Q

Dorsal Striatum

A

Barry Everette 2014- repeated pairing of drug related cues to drug taking forms neural association or the learning of is a region in the basal ganglia which consists if the caudate nucleus and putamen. by the user repeatingly taking the drug voluntary control gives way to unconscious taking and processes a habit. user looses decision over control related to drug taking and thus gives way to the craving of addiction.
*Ample evidence confirms that habitual users continue using their drug of choice even when taking it no longer produces any pleasure.
*Heroin addicts report that sometimes they are miserable: their lives are in ruins
the drug is not even pleasurable anymore
still want it still take it
*the desire for the drug is greatest when the addicted person is maximally high, not during withdrawal.
*The cues are associated with drug taking-the social situation-the sight of drug and its paraphernalia-strongly influences decisions to take, or continue taking the drug.

193
Q

Dopamine Bias

A

more than one type of addiction

  • Rats: readily conditioned with cues associated with reinforcement -example- a bar that delivers reward when pressed. Other animals will ignore the bar salience but are attracted to the location where they receive the reinforcement.
  • Animals that display FORMER BEHAVIOR are termed SIGN TRACKERS other groups are GOAL TRACKERS
  • Sign trackers: exposed to addictive drugs attribute incentive salience to drug associated cues and is dependent on the brains dopamine system.
  • Goal trackers: also become addicted, possibly via different neural systems and imply at least two types of addiction (Yager et al, 2015)
194
Q

Extending wanting and liking Theory

A

Cues related to sexual activity, food and even sports can induce wanting, sometime in the absence of liking.
we can be pompted by a cue of other people eating, even though we may not be hungry and may derive little pleasure from eating at that time.
*exaggerating normal behaviors and drug addiction suggest they depend on the same learning and brain mechanisms. for this reason ANY addiction is extremely difficult to treat.

*people who enjoy high risk adventure me be genetically predisposed to experiment with drugs, but people with no interest in risk taking are just as likely to use drugs.

195
Q

Compulsive drug taking

A

three lines of evidence:

  • if a twin abuses alcohol, the identical twin (same genotype) is more likely to abuse it than would be a fraternal twin (only some genes in common)
  • people adopted shortly after birth are more likely to abuse alcohol if their biological parents were alcoholic, even though they have had almost no contact with those parents.
  • most animals do not care for alcohol, selective breeding of mice, rats, and monkeys can produce strains that consume large quantities of it.
196
Q

Epigenetics

A
  • complementary explanation of susceptibility to addiction (Hillemacher 2015)
  • Epigenetic changes in an individual’s ene expression and may be permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations.
  • Epigenetics can account for both the enduring behaviors that support addiction and for the tendency of drug addiction to be inherited.
197
Q

Treating Drug addiction

A

NID 2016 - people between the ages of 12 and older reported using Psychoactive drugs

two most used legal drugs alcohol and tobacco

two most used illegal drugs heroin and cocaine used by far fewer people

Canada has legalized Cannabis to some degree

legal proscriptions are irrational and difficult in treating drug abuse

198
Q

Harrison narcotics Act of 1914

A

made Heroin and a variety of other drugs illegal and made the treatment of addicted people by physicians in their private offices illegal.

199
Q

The Drug addiction Act of 2000

A

partly reversed that prohibition, allowing the treatment of patients but with a number of restrictions.legal consequences attending drug use vary depending on the drug and jurisdiction.

Tobacco has a mush higher health risk than Cannabis
Social coercion is useful in reducing tobacco use.
there is a marked decline in smoking as a result of prohibitions against smoking in public places.

it is impossible to moderately use opioids.
medical treatment is necessary in the treatment of opioid abusers.

200
Q

Treatments for drug abuse

A

vary depending on the drug

  • on line
  • in person communities
  • self help and professional groups
  • Addiction is influenced by conditioning
    to drug related cues and by variety of brain changes , recidivism remains an enduring risk for those who have kicked the habit.
201
Q

Neural Bias

A

Neuroscience continues to lead better understanding of drug use and better treatments.

Best approach : Recognize that addiction is a lifelong problem for most people and should be treated in the same way chronic behavioral addiction as well as medical problems, such as controlling weight with appropriate diet and exercise is a lifelong struggle for many people.

202
Q

Drugs and brain damage

A

Substances can act as neurotoxins

Certain drugs can cause brain damage in humans, but definitive proof is very difficult to obtain.

there is evidence that developing brains can be particularly sensitive to drug effects especially in adolescence. drug experimentation is common at that age. (Texteria Gomes 2015)

203
Q

MSG

A

In the 1960”s a salty tasting flavor-enhancing food additive caused : headaches
kills cultured neurons
kills neurons in the brains of experimental animals

  • there is no evidence that MSG is harmful
204
Q

Glutamatelike substances

A

domonic acid - toxins found in seaweed *kills neurons
kainic acid - toxins found in seaweed *kills neurons
ibotenic acid - found in poisonous mushrooms * kills neurons

*These toxins act on Glutamate receptors - this results as an influx into the cell that activates a suicide gene leading to apoptosis (cell death)

205
Q

Drugs

A

PCP - glutamate agonist * at high doses causes neuronal death
Ketamine - glutamate agonist * at high doses causes neuronal death

  • a drug can be toxic not only because of its general effect on cell function but also an agent that activates normal cell processes related to apoptosis.
206
Q

Glutamatelike Drug

A

-Are toxic because they act on glutamate receptors, activation results in an influx of Ca2+ into the cell, which through second messengers activates a suicide gene leading to apoptosis (cell death)

207
Q

Alcohol

A

-Does not directly cause this damage
Alcoholics typically obtain low amounts of thiamine (B1) in their diet and alcohol interferes with the ability of the intestines to absorb thiamine

208
Q

Drug-induced Psychosis

A

-In low doses, methamphetamine, the active ingredient in crystal meth elevates mood, increases alertness, concentration, and energy; reduces appetite, and promotes weight loss
-At high doses, induces psychosis in vulnerable individuals and can cause seizures and brain hemorrhage
-Compulsivity, display unpredictable and rapid mood swings, paranoia, hallucinations, delirium, and delusions, often with accompanying violent behavior
-Methamphetamine is a dopaminergic agonist, it interacts directly with the nucleus accumbens, which can lead to compulsive drug use
-Withdrawal symptoms during initial abstinence may persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period observed for other drugs
-Chronic methamphetamine use has a toxic effect on human midbrain dopaminergic neurons and serotonin neurons, leading to reductions in gray-matter volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity
~Dopaminergic antagonists are used to treating psychosis, but they are not a cure

209
Q

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A

-Pure powdered form (Molly)
-Structurally related to amphetamine, it produces hallucinogenic effects and is called a hallucinogenic amphetamine
~In monkeys, the terminal loss may be permanent
-May also contain a contaminant called paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA)

210
Q

Paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA)

A

-Also known as “Dr. Death” because the difference between a dose that caused behavioral effects and a dose that causes death is minuscule

211
Q

Cocaine

A
  • Also suspect with respect to brain damage
  • Related to the blockage of cerebral blood flow and other changes in blood circulation
  • Brain-imaging studies show that brain regions are reduced in size, suggesting that cocaine use can be toxic to neurons
212
Q

THC

A
  • May trigger psychosis in vulnerable individuals, but there is no evidence that the psychosis is a result of brain damage
  • May have neuroprotective properties; can aid brain healing after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and slow the progression of disease associated with brain degeneration, Alzheimer’s disease, and Hunting disease
213
Q

Hormones

A

-How the hypothalamus produces neurohormones that stimulate the pituitary gland to secret releasing hormones into the circulatory system
-Only affect the body organs
~Also target virtually all aspects of brain function
-Almost every neuron in the brain contains receptors on which various hormones can act
-Influencing sex organs and physical appearance, hormones affect neurotransmitter function, especially in neurons that influence sexual development and behavior
-Can influence gene expression by binding to special receptors on or in the cell and then being transported to the nucleus to influence gene transcription
-Influence brain and body structure and behavior

214
Q

Pituitary Hormones

A

-In turn, influence the remaining endocrine glands to release appropriate hormones into the bloodstream to act on various targets in the body and send feedback to the brain about the need for more or less hormones

215
Q

Transcription

A

-Influences the synthesis of proteins needed for a variety of cellular processes

216
Q

Steroid Hormones

A
  • Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol
  • Testosterone and cortisol
  • Synthesized from cholesterol and are lipid (fat) soluble
  • Diffuse away from their site of synthesis in glands, including the gonads, adrenal cortex, and thyroid
  • Bind to steroid receptors on the cell membrane or in cell and frequently act on cellular DNA to influence gene transcription
217
Q

Peptide Hormones

A
  • Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell’s physiology
  • Insulin, growth hormone, and the endorphins
  • Made by cellular DNA in the same way other proteins are made
  • Influence their target cell’s activity by binding to metabotropic receptors on the cell membrane, generating a second messenger that affects the cell’s physiology or gene transcription
218
Q

Steroid and Peptide hormones

A

-Fall into one of three main functional groups with respect to behavior
~Homeostatic Hormones
~Gonadal (sex) Hormones
~Glucocorticoids

219
Q

Homeostatic Hormones

A
  • One of the groups of hormones that maintain internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems in an organisms
  • Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems
  • Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) control bother the concentration of water in blood and cells and the level of sodium, potassium, and calcium in the body, and the promote digestive function
220
Q

Gonadal Hormones

A

-One of the groups of hormones, such as testosterone, that control reproductive functions and bestow sexual appearance and identity as male or female
-Control reproductive functions
-Instruct the body to develop as male (testosterone) or female (estrogen)
~Influence sexual behavior and conception
-Women, control the menstrual cycle (estrogen and progesterone). birthing babies, and release of breast milk (prolactin, oxytocin)
~Oxytocin, influences mother-infant bonding

221
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

-One of the groups of steroid hormones, such as cortisol secreted in times of stress; important in protein and carbohydrates metabolism
-A group of steroid hormones secreted in times of stress
~Important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism and controlling blood sugar levels and cellular absorption of sugar

222
Q

Typical homeostatic function

A

-Is controlling blood sugar levels

223
Q

Diabetes mellitus

A

-Caused by failure of the pancreatic cells to secrete and or enough insulin
Blood sugar can fall (hypoglycemia) or rise (hyperglycemia)

224
Q

Hyperglycemia

A
  • Blood glucose levels rise because insulin does not instruct body cells to take up glucose
  • Cell function, including neuronal function, can fail through glucose starvation, even in the presence of high glucose levels in the blood
  • High blood glucose levels cause damage to the eyes, kidney, nerves, heart, and blood vessels
225
Q

Hypoglycemia

A

-Inappropriate diet cal lead to low blood sugar severe enough to cause fainting

226
Q

Eric Steen

A

-That insulin resistance in brain cells may be related to Alzheimer disease
~Hunger and eating are influenced by a number of homeostatic hormones, including leptin and ghrelin

227
Q

Leptin

A

-Secreted by adipose tissue, inhibits hunger and so is called the satiety hormone

228
Q

Ghrelin

A
  • Secreted by the gastrointestinal tract, regulates growth hormones and energy use
  • Induces hunger
  • It is secreted when the stomach is empty
  • Secretion stops when the stomach is full
229
Q

Anabolic Steroids (Anabolic-androgenic steroids)

A
  • Class of synthetic hormones related to testosterone that have both musclebuilding (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effect
  • Synthesized originally to build body mass and enhance endurance
  • Synthetic steroid use rapidly spread to other countries; leading to the ban on track and field and then many other sports
230
Q

Fast Response

A

-Sympathetic division of the ANS is activated to prepare the body and its organs for fight to flight response
~Stimulates the medulla on the interior of the adrenal gland to release EP
*The EP surge prepares the body for a sudden burst of activity
-Epinephrine stimulates cell metabolism, readying the body’s cells for action
-Parasympathetic division for rest and digest is turned off

231
Q

Slow Response

A
  • Controlled by the steroid cortisol, a glucocorticoid release from the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland
  • Activating the cortisol pathway takes anywhere from minutes to hours
  • Cortisol has wide-ranging functions, including off all bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor
232
Q

What happens if the stress response is not shut down

A
  • The body continues to mobilize energy at the cost of energy storage
  • Proteins are used up, resulting in muscle wasting and fatigue
  • Growth hormone is inhibited, so the body cannot grow
  • The gastrointestinal system remains shut down, reducing the intake and processing of nutrients to replace used resources
  • Reproductive functions are inhibited
  • The immune system is suppressed, contributing to the possibility of infection of diseases
233
Q

Sapolsky

A

-Argus that the hippocampus plays an important role in turning off the stress response
~Contians has a high density of cortisol receptors, and it has axons that project to the hypothalamus
-The hippocampus is well suited to detect cortisol in the blood and instruct the hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels

234
Q

Cortisol Levels

A

-Are usually regulated by the hippocampus, but if these levels remain elevated because a stress-inducing situation perpetuates, cortisol eventually damages the hippocampus, reducing its size
~The damaged hippocampus is then unable to do its work of reducing the level of cortisol
-Hippocampus undergoes progressive degeneration and cortisol levels are not controlled

235
Q

Hippocampus

A
  • The amount of damage that must occur to produce a stress syndrome is not certain
  • Brain-imagining techniques may not be sensitive to subtle changes in the hippocampal cells function or to moderate cells
  • Wide individual and environmental differences influence how people respond to stress
  • Neonatal stress can influence hippocampal neurogenesis
  • Are long-lived and gather many life experiences that complicate simple extrapolations from a single stressful event
236
Q

Patrick McGrown

A

-Report that the density of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus of people who committed suicide and has been sexually abused as children
-The decrease in receptors and in glucocorticoid mRNA suggests that childhood abuse induces epigenetic changes in the expression of glucocorticoid genes
-Suggestion of a mechanism through which stress can influence hippocampal function without necessarily being associated with a decrease in hippocampal volume
-Point that stress likely produces many changes in many brain regions
~Unlikely that all these changes have been described or are understood

Psychology 2250-004 (12 decks)

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