Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

HSC BIOLOGY > Module 6: Genetic Change > Flashcards

Module 6: Genetic Change Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

The use of living organisms or their products to reate new ways to improve human health and the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Medical biotechnologies

A

-Reproductive technologies such as brith control, IVF
-Antibiotics- penicillin
-Vaccines such as small pox, HPV
-Drug development- aspirin
-Production of human proteins, insulin, HGH, gene therapy and genetic counselling, monoclonal antibodies, tissue culture, stem cell research

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Industry biotechnologies

A

Bioleaching of metals from ores
-Foods- beer and wine
-Detergents
-Chemicals- acetone
-GMO yeast converts waste into feed and biofuel
-Bioplastics produced from corn
-Languard- enzyme that degrades pesticides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Environment biotechnologies

A

-Waste treatment- sewrage treatment
-Oil degrading microbes, biosenors, using antibodies, enzymes and other molecules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Agriculture biotechnologies

A

-Selective breeding, hybridization of species, working dogs
-Herbicide resistant crops, animals with useufll traits (transgenics), animal cloning (dolly)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Social implications (plants) biotechnology

A

-Concern over the spread of “unnatural” genes from GMOs to the environment
-Creation of GM crops like maize or potato, may cause the loss of the original varieties
• Vegetarians may be concerned that animal genes are used in GM plant products.
• Labelling laws are concern for many who feel foods containing GMOs should be labelled.
• Ethical concerns over small family farmers being unable to compete with large scale farms.
-Dependence on GMOS

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Social implications (animals) biotechnology

A

• Concern that novel animal viruses will affect humans. E.g. What happens if a fox virus that causes sterility, should affect humans too?
• Vegetarians may be concerned that animal genes are used in plant products.
• Adherents of some religions may be concerned that (for example) pig genes are used in other animals
• Is adding human genes to animal genomes immoral? E.g. cows have been genetically modified to produce human milk, for people intolerant to cow milk.
• Some religious people object to genetic engineering on moral/religious grounds..

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Eval of adv/dis (Synthetic. meat production)

A

Ends world hunger, vegetarians eating meat, better nutritional outcomes, cheaper meat, better for the environment, less water usage and methane emissions, cruelty to animals

Impact on cattle farmers etc

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Eval of adv/dis (Longer human lifespan)

A

Less suffering, longer economic contributions to society, overall positive, less death

Overcrowding, unemployment, not enough services to cater for the growing population

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Eval of adv/dis (Genome editing and cures for diseases)

A

Better health and less suffering

Issues of equity, insurance issues

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Cloning definition

A

The genetic practice of transferring the nucleus of an individual with desirable characteristics, into an enucleated ovum of another individual, to produce genetic replicas.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Evaluation of cloning

A

-Threatens to reduce the biodiversity of livestock as the clones are genetically identical, since they are not produced by meiosis. Therefore the processes that normally shuffle alleles do not apply (crossing over, independent assortment and fertilization).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Genetic engineering definition

A

(also called recombinant DNA technology) s the process of cutting a gene from cells of one species and splicing them into the genome of another species to produce novel combinations of traits.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Genetic engineering advantages

A

As the potential to increase genetic variation, because it allows genes to “break the species barrier.” While selective breeding reduces a gene pool to desirable traits encoded by alleles already present in the species, recombinant DNA technology allows scientists to take genes for desirable traits from one species, and splice them into another – creating potentially limitless biodiversity
-Jellyfish genes inserted into rabbits, transgenic salmon: growing all year long

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Genetic engineering disadvantages

A

-Recombinant DNA technology probably serves to decrease biodiversity. By creating crop varieties that are economically advantageous, most farmers will adopt the new GM varieties, severely reducing the number of non-GM varieties being grown. Much of the genetic variety in these traditional varieties may be lost. -CANOLA in Australia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

RT: Artificial insemination

A

-The injection of semen through the cervix into the uterus without sexual intercourse for the purpose of achieving fertilization.
-Humans are able to select desirable traits and forcibly combine them to hopefully produce offspring with desirable characteristics
-Changes the alleles present within the population
-Disadvantage- limiting the genetic variation within a species- increases in homogeny

-Animal production, horse breeding, fertility in humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

RT: IVF

A

-The removal of both the egg and the sperm, combing them together in a lab to ensure they come together to produce an embryo
-Once it has been confirmed, the embryo begins to divide and the cells are implanted back into the uterus or frozen for further use
-Allows for genetic screening, fav genes

-Fertility

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

RT: Artificial pollination

A

-Pollen is transferred from the anthers (male parts) of a flower to the stigma (female pollen receptor) of another flower -can select and breed plants with desirable characteristics together to improve a crop
-Higher yields, desirable traits, controlled inheritance

-Pollinating crops

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

CL: Whole organism cloning process

A

1.Adult somatic cell is removed from the organism being cloned that contains their genetic material
2.An unfertilized egg is removed from a donor organism; the DNA is removed from this egg (it is DENUCLEATED)- empty vessel
3.Denucleated egg and stem cell are fused
4.Resulting cell is cultured so that it can divide and become an embryo
5.Surrogate has the embryo implanted
6.Gives birth to organism that’s genetically identical.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

CL: Whole organism cloning advantages and uses

A

Clone isn’t strictly identical to its parent organism
-Any mutations acquired in the somatic cell will be passed down ( FOR EXAMPLE- CC AND RAINBOW LOOK DIFFERENT)
-Has a different mitochondrial genome
-Also environmental factors- not phenotypically identical
-low effectiveness

-Definitive inheritance of desirable traits

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

CL: Therepeutis cloning process (STEM CELL)

A

Uses somatic cell nuclear transfer

1.A nucleus containing genetic material is removed from the cell of a patient.
2.. Then inserted into a denucleated egg cell- the cell then begins to divide
3. After a few days the cell has divided into an embryo and the embryonic stem cells can be removed
4. These cells are cultured so they remain undifferentiated- remain genetically identical

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

CL: Therepeutis cloning advantages and uses

A

-Medicine (stem cell tech)

-Involves pluripotent stem cells that can grow and differentiate into any type of ell in the body, meaning various diseases can be treated by replacing dysfunctional cells
-No risk of immunological rejection- as they’re identical
-Requires many attempts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

CL: Gene cloning process

A

-(Also known as molecular cloning) the process of producing multiple copies of a specific DNA sequences, ultimately to produce multiple copies of an identical molecule

1.Target gene is identified
2.Plasmids are isolated from bacteria
3.Both the bacterial plasmid and the DNA containing the target gene are treated using a reconstruction enzyme- cuts the DNA breaking hydrogen bonds in the molecule creating sticky ends sequences of overhanging single stranded DNA
4. The complementary sticky ends of target gene and the plasmid come together through base pairing affinity- then annealed using DNA ligase
5.The new recombinant plasmid is reinserted into host bacteria by a process called transformation
6. The host bacteria expresses lots and lots of copies of the target gene producing large amounts of the target protein (for example, insulin). – can then be extracted by cells- purified and used by humans

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

CL: Gene cloning uses and advantages

A

-Medicine and industry (production of important molecules at a large scale)

-Relatively fast and cheap
-Much harder to produce large amounts of a protein on an industrial scale
-Bacteria is easier to work with than mammalian cells

-Production of biologically relevant proteins (insulin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

RDNAT: Transgenesis

A

-The introduction of exogenous genetic material (DNA from an external source/different organism) into a living organism- this is performed so that the organism exhibits a new trait and transfers this trait to its offspring
-All living organisms are made of nucleonic acids meaning a defined DNA sequence will encode the same protein in all organisms

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

RDNAT: Transgenesis uses and advantages

A

-Agriculture (development of pest-resistant crops)
Environmental biotech

-Creation of organisms with multiple functions, transference of favorable traits, reduction in pesticide use, exploit biological phenomena (jellyfish glow)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

RDNAT: Gene therapy

A

-The correction of genetic disorders by introducing normal, functional genes into cells
-By introducing this healthy genetic material into the cell, the offspring of the cell in interest will inherit the healthy gene, repairing the genetic disorder
-There are various techniques used to insert new genetic material into cells
-Can be gene augmentation therapy (insertion of new healthy genes where the gene of interest is essential to cell function), gene inhibition therapy (blocking gene that stops the expression of a dysfunctional gene not needed in the body and germline or somatic gene therapy.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

RDNAT: CRISPR

A

-Using this system, we can direct our gene editing tool to a specific part of a genome with very high accuracy, and cut and edit the gene of interest
-We can insert, delete or substitute up to 20 base pairs
-Improves targeted gene therapy, reversing point mutations causing diseases (such as CF)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

AG: Selective breeding, artificial pollination, transgenesis (eval)

A

Creation of crop and livestock species which exhibit favorable traits (higher yields, higher nutritional value, better temperament in livestock)
-Creation of organisms which don’t require use of insecticides or herbicides, decreasing the impact on the environment
-Increased food security as a solution to global poverty and food shortages.

-Soybean- fat and vitamins
-Bt corn and cotton

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

MED: Therapeutic cloning, gene cloning, sequencing, crispr, therapy

A

-Personalized medicine leading to pre-emptive diagnosis of disorders for better treatment
-Treatment of genetic diseases lading to potential cures, rather than merely addressing symptoms
-Improved diagnostic tools
-Cheaper, faster tools which can be used in remote locations increasing access to health care
-Improved creation of important biological molecules for treatment of diseases (insulin for diabetes)

-GM tobacco with antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Genetic tech in agriculture (adv)

A

Insect and herbicide resistance (not required to use harsh chemicals which reduces the neg enviro impact of large-scale agricultural operations, proliferation of knowledge based ag, increase stress resistance and productivity, maximize use of restricted land, survive against increased environmental pressures, ameliorate issues of biodiversity, transgenic- increase biodiversity

32
Q

Genetic tech in agriculture (dis)

A

-Ag practices have always posed a threat to biodiversity- encourage the growth of specific crops in large amounts- widespread nutrient loss, monocultures and reduction in ecosystem diversity
-Ability to outcompete unmodified crops, allow for superbugs to take control, horizontal gene transfer into native ecosystems, monoculture results in genetic erosion
-Vulnerability

33
Q

What is golden rice?

A

-Golden Rice Golden rice is a strain of rice which was developed through genetic engineering techniques.
-The variety has been designed to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A.
- The fortified rice is intended to be grown in areas whose populations have a general shortage in dietary vitamin A.
-Golden rice was created by inserting two genes for beta-carotene biosynthesis into the plant’s genome:
-psy (phytoene synthase), derived from daffodil
- crti (carotene desaturase) derived from a soil bacterium

34
Q

Golden rice benefits

A

Public health benefits (e.g. aid with vitamin A deficiency which is responsible for 1-2 million deaths annually) - Introduction of new alleles into the gene pool, increasing variation across rice species - Development of this technology paves the way for future research into nutritionally augmented foods

35
Q

Golden rice disadvantages

A

Potential loss of biodiversity in the surrounding areas due to unsustainable mono-culturing practices - Existing issues with agriculture are exacerbated by corporate control of the product - Unforeseeable risks of introducing new molecules into diet (though this has largely been disproved in recent studies) rice will divert attention away from continuing structural inequalities that are the cause of vitamin A deficiency

36
Q

GM Aedes aegypti description

A
  • A tropical mosquito that transmits the Dengue virus which causes Dengue, zika etc
    -Geneticists have developed a GM Aedes aegypti (called OX513A) which contains a dominant allele of a gene called tTA, which interferes with cell development. In order to survive and grow, a baby OX513A needs a constant supply of the antibiotic tetracycline. In this way the gene acts as a sort of remote kill-switch.
  • The aim of Oxitec is to breed billions of mosquitos in the presence of tetracycline, and then release males (only) into the wild. It is hoped that the OX513A males will mate with wild females. In the absence of tetracycline in the wild, the offspring will die before they are old enough to reproduce
37
Q

GM Aedes aegypti (social)

A
  • Dengue fever is classed by the World Health Organization as a NTD (neglected tropical disease). Diseases of this type are often overlooked by developed nations
38
Q

GM Aedes aegypti (economic)

A

-Dengue fever costs the world AU$5.5 Billion a year. Releasing OX513A is much more economical than using pesticide sprays, particularly since pesticide sprays have proven ineffective.

39
Q

GM Aedes aegypti (cultural)

A

A lot of religious, moral and ethical anxieties around genetically modified organisms

40
Q

GM Aedes aegypti (environmental)

A

-Mosquitos are a source of food for a number of animals, especially bats and some birds. While it is unlikely that a loss of mosquito population numbers will adversely affect ecosystems, since even in bats mosquitos only constitute 5% of the diet, it may have some impact.

41
Q

What is a mutation?

A

-A mutation is any change to the DNA of an organism, that is unpredictable and random
-By altering the genetic code, mutagens may change the phenotypic expression in an organism.
-DNA is transcribed to form mRNA, which is then translated into a polypeptide

42
Q

Somatic mutation vs gametic mutation

A

-Somatic mutation: A mutation that occurs in a somatic cell and isn’t passed on to offspring
-Gametic mutation: a mutation that occurs in a sex cell and is inherited by offspring

43
Q

EM radiation

A

-Electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic waves are emitted by electrically charged particles
-These waves interact with and ionize atoms they encounter in the body
-Radiation is highly penetrative be cause it is composed of high energy waves
-Ionizing radiation such as x rays, gamma rays and alpha a and b particles can damage DNA in a number of ways

44
Q

How does EM radiation cause mutation?

A

Directly: Ionizing radiation can cause the ionization of molecules in the DNA resulting in the sugar-phosphate backbone breaking, or a nitrogenous base charning so that it no longer pairs with its complementary base

Indirectly:-Ionizing radiation can also ionize other molecules in the cell, sometimes producing free radicals which can interact with other molecules to form compounds, which can damage DNA

45
Q

EM radiation examples

A

missense mutations in -53- tumor suppressant gene

46
Q

Chemical mutations

A

-Mutations can also be changed by chemicals that interact with DNA

47
Q

Chemical examples

A

For example, ROS such as free radicals, Heavy metals which can cause the sugar phosphate backbone of the DNA to break, and inhibit enzymes which repair DNA
-Deaminating agents like nitrous acid (converts C to U)
-Base analogs which can replace bases during DNA replication
-Nucleotides other than ATCG anf U can sometimes be incorporated by mistake into DNA because they are very similar
-In some cases, they are able to pair with more than one base

48
Q

Natural mutations (viruses)

A

-Replicate by inserting their DNA Into host cells, creating a disruption to cell function and leading to mutation changes

-HPV virus

49
Q

Natural mutations (transposons)

A

-Also known as jumping genes
-Segments of DNA which can change their position in chromosomal DNA
-Can create mutations which alter gene expression in cells
-They are responsible for phenome such as coloring in peppered moths and conferral of antibiotic resistance in bacteria

50
Q

Natural mutations (Bacterial infections)

A

Can induce inflammation, reducing the efficiency of DNA repair systems, increasing the rate of mutation
-This is the reason that infections can cause the development of stomach cancer

51
Q

Point mutations

A

Mutations that only change or effect one or a few nucleotides within a gene sequence

52
Q

Point: sub mutations

A

-When one nucleotide is switched out for another one.

53
Q

Point: Frameshift- Insertion

A

When nucleotides are added to a sequence

54
Q

Point: Frameshift- Deletion

A

When nucleotides are deleted from a sequence

55
Q

Point: Silent mutations

A

The mutation has no effect on the codon and therefore has no effect on the amino acid the sequence encodes for- no change to polypeptide or protein

56
Q

Point: Missense mutation

A

-The mutation effects one codon introducing a different amino acid into the polypeptide sequence

57
Q

Point: Nonsense mutation

A

The mutation prematurely introduces a stop codon, resulting in a shortened polypeptide chain and a mis functional protein

58
Q

Chromosomal mutation

A

Those which change or affect a long segment of DNA (portion or a chromosome for example)

59
Q

Chromosomal: Deletion

A

When a section of chromosome is removed

60
Q

Chromosomal: Inversion

A

When a section of a chromosome is inverted (turned up side down) and reinserted into the chromosome.

61
Q

Chromosomal: Translocation

A

When a section of one chromosome is moved to a different non homologous chromosome (21 is moved to 22)

62
Q

Chromosomal: Duplication

A

When a section of a chromosome is doubled.

63
Q

Polyploidy and aneuploidy

A

When an organism has more than two sets of homologous chromosomes
-Tripolidy- fetus has three copies of every homologous chromosomes instead of two

When the overall chromosome number of the offspring is different to the parent organisms
-47 chromosomes instead of 46- three copies of chromosome 21 (trisomy)

64
Q

Chromsomal disease example- deletion

A

Turner Syndrome

65
Q

How do somatic mutations affect organisms?

A

Genetic alterations that a cell acquires which may be passed on to daughter cells by division (mitosis in humans)
-Usually caused by environmental factprs- external mutagens
-These mutations affect any cells descended from the original cell in which the mutation occurred
-As the effected cell divides- specific area of tissue with the mutation may develop but the mutation will not alter the genetic composition of ant other cells
-EFFECTS- CANCER

66
Q

How do germline mutations affect organisms?

A

-Occurs in the germ cells (sperm or ovum)
-May be passed to offspring during fertilization
-Gametes are the basis of all other cells in the body
-The zygote formed by the germline cells undergoes mitosis to produce all the other cells in the body
-Any alteration to the genetic composition of the gamete will be passed onto all cells within the offspring

67
Q

Mutations in coding sequences

A

-DNA is transcribed into mRNA and this code is translated to make proteins
-Often known as gene expression
-Many proteins are enzymes and have an important role in digestion etc
-If the DNA is altered by a mutagen and that DNA is part of a gene that could code for a protein, then changing the code could alter the activity of a cell

68
Q

Mutations in non-coding sequences

A

-Most of the DNA in a cell is non coding DNA
-A mutation in a non-coding DNA usually will have no phenotypic effect whatsoever on an organism
-Doesn’t have the coded instructions for protein synthesis
-Mutations can be caused by the same thing as coding DNA strands
-Has little effect unless the introns get converted into exons

69
Q

How does mutation cause genetic diversity?

A

-IF mutation takes place in the coding region of a gene the polypeptide may not work, may work less well or work differently
-For better or worse, the changed gene is a new allele

70
Q

How does fertilisation cause genetic diversity?

A

-Mutation during DNA replication, crossing over, independent assortment, random segregation

71
Q

How does meiosis cause genetic diversity?

A

-Mutation during DNA replication, crossing over, independent assortment, random segregation

72
Q

What is gene flow?

A

-Transfer of genetic variation (different alleles) from one population to another
-Migration of individuals from one population to another will result in transference of alles into and out of populations

73
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

-When the relative frequency of alleles within a population changes due to the disappearance of particular genes as a result of natural selection
-How traits become less or more prevalent in a population over time

74
Q

How does independent assortment cause variation?

A

-The independent assortment of non-homologous chromosome at the equator during meiosis results in new combinations of phenotypes in the offspring, which increases variation in the population
-When they line up at metaphase 1 in meiosis they line up randomly
-Shuffles the parental and maternal chromosomes

75
Q

How does crossing over cause variation?

A

-Increases variation because it allows the recombination of allele with have gene loci on the same chromosome.

76
Q

Founder effect

A

-Happens when a new population is formed from a small number of individuals from an existing parent population but the genetic makeup of these founding individuals is not representative of the existing population.

77
Q

Genetic bottleneck

A

-Occurs when a population on the brink of extinction frows in numbers again but the frequency of alleles is changed because the few individuals that survived give rise to the news population which is not representative of the genetic makeup of the original population.

HSC BIOLOGY (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions