Module 6 Chapters 12 & 13

Question 1

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Emphasis is the way

Answer 1

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Emphasis is the way other people influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Question 2

PERSON PERCEPTION
Refers to the
Ex:
4 basic principles
1. Your reactions to others are determined by
Ex:
2. Your goals in a situation determine
Exs:
3. You evaluate people partly in terms of
Exs:
4. Your self-perception influences how
Ex:

Answer 2

PERSON PERCEPTION
Refers to the mental processes we use to form judgements and draw conclusions about the characteristics of other people
Ex: what kind of judgment, belief, conclusion do you make about the man in lab coat compared to tank top and tattoos
4 basic principles
Your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them, which is subjective
Ex: Adult’s view of tattoos is different from teenagers
Your goals in a situation determine the kind of information you collect about others
Ex: random assigned roommate, how much information would you collect about them? A lot.
Ex: randomly assigned with peers for one assignment. Won’t collect info
You evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act in that situation; people tend to follow social norms, which can vary from culture, time periods
Ex: expect biology partner to take good notes, cooperate, pay attention in class
Ex: roommate having a beer at 5am
Your self-perception influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions
Ex: Norden’s perception on what partner to have in a computer science class is different from her son’s who just wanted someone nice

Question 3

SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION
We group people, characteristics, and behaviors in an
Ex:
Pros:
Cons:
Ex:

Answer 3

SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION
We group people, characteristics, and behaviors in an immediate and spontaneous manner; we want to put people in a box
Ex: Gender, race, age, appearance, occupation
Pros: speeds processing time, helps us organize and remember information
Cons: we categorized based on superficial things, draw conclusions too easily, many times those conclusions are wrong
Ex: all women care about looks, so we should sell this product

Question 4

EXPLICIT COGNITION
Deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in
IMPLICIT COGNITION
However, your social perceptions are not always completely conscious considerations. In many situations, you react to another person

Answer 4

EXPLICIT COGNITION
Deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning.
IMPLICIT COGNITION
However, your social perceptions are not always completely conscious considerations. In many situations, you react to another person automatically.
Automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning

Question 5

ATTRIBUTIONS: BACKGROUND
Attributions are explanations for
We tend to make attributions when
Ex:
We want to make sense

Answer 5

ATTRIBUTIONS: BACKGROUND
Attributions are explanations for our own and others’ behavior
We tend to make attributions when something unusual or bad happens
Ex: blind date, stood up
We want to make sense out of the world

Question 6

ATTRIBUTIONS: BACKGROUND
2 different kinds
Ex:
Ex:

Answer 6

2 different kinds
Personal or Internal – focus on internal traits, characteristics in order to explain someone’s behavior
Ex: why did someone get a bad score on a quiz? Because they’re lazy and stupid
Situational – focus on external situational reasons to explain someone’s behavior
Ex: why did someone get a bad score on a quiz? Because they didn’t have much time to study, worked too many hours at their job

Question 7

ATTRIBUTIONS: BACKGROUND
Attributions determine our
When we blame someone, we’re
Ex:
Ex: negative behavior: getting cut off on the road
Situational attribution: “ “ → Tolerant Reaction
Dispositional attribution: “” → Unfavorable reaction ()

Answer 7

Attributions determine our reactions to others and our decisions regarding them. When we blame someone, we’re less likely to help them.
Ex: Hear that a neighbor’s house burned down, left candle lit, her fault, would we help her?
Ex: negative behavior: getting cut off on the road
Situational attribution: “maybe that driver is ill.” → Tolerant Reaction (proceed cautiously, allow driver a wide berth)
Dispositional attribution: “Crazy driver!” → Unfavorable reaction (speed up and race past the other driver, craning to give a dirty look)

Question 8

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
Fundamental attribution error – tendency to

We engage in this error/bias because we want a
Ex:
Ex:
Research Study: subjects listened to debate about death penalty;

The fundamental attribution error plays a role in

Answer 8

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
Fundamental attribution error – tendency to overestimate the role of personal causes and to underestimate the role of situational factors when making attributions
We engage in this error/bias because we want a correspondence/connection who people are and how they behave
Ex: boss mistreating employees, we want to think he’s just a jerk, instead of thinking something happened to him so he’s just taking out his anger on them
Ex: If a guy stops to help you pick up stuff you dropped, we want to think he’s nice, but it could be because he wants to be late to work
Research Study: subjects listened to debate about death penalty; passionate talking, we want to believe they really believe it, but it was actually randomly assigned
The fundamental attribution error plays a role in blaming-the-victim

Question 9

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
The fundamental attribution error plays a role in Blaming-the-victim – the tendency to

Ex:

The blaming the victim explanatory pattern is reinforced by another common cognitive bias →

Answer 9

Blaming-the-victim – the tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it.
Ex: many people blame the poor for their dire straits, the sick for bringing on their illnesses, and victims of domestic violence or rape for somehow “provoking” their attackers.
The blaming the victim explanatory pattern is reinforced by another common cognitive bias → Hindsight Bias

Question 10

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
The blaming the victim explanatory pattern is reinforced by another common cognitive bias → Hindsight bias –
tendency, after an event has occurred, to

In everyday conversations, this is the person who
In the case of blaming the victim, hindsight bias makes it seem as if the victim should have

Answer 10

Hindsight bias – tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate one’s ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome.
In everyday conversations, this is the person who confidently proclaims after the event, “I could have told you that would happen.” In the case of blaming the victim, hindsight bias makes it seem as if the victim should have predicted — and prevented — what happened

Question 11

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
Actor-observer bias – tendency to use

Ex:
Ex:

Answer 11

Actor-observer bias – tendency to use personal attributions to explain OTHER people’s behavior, while focusing more on situational attributions when explaining your OWN behavior
Ex: in-person class, you copy a few answers from a peer, professor notices you and other people cheating. Explanation for cheating: “this isn’t like me, I just didn’t have a lot of time to study, normally hardworking” → external explanation for self. But if asked about other people cheating: “they’re lazy, stupid, etc.” → internal explanation
Ex: “People are so inconsiderate. When someone else litters… But there is no dustbin. When you yourself litter.”

Question 12

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
Self-serving attributional bias – we take
Ex:
Ex:
Might be a helpful bias to

Answer 12

Self-serving attributional bias – we take credit for our successes but blame others or the situation for our failures
Ex: Why did you do well on the quiz? I worked hard. If you didn’t do well, then it’s the professor’s fault.
Ex: People who are depressed, low self-esteem, don’t do this because they think “I just got lucky, guessed correctly, won’t take credit” or “Maybe I’m not cut out for this, I should drop out”
Might be a helpful bias to protect us from depression or low self-esteem; makes us think we’re good at things

Question 13

ATTRIBUTION ERRORS/BIASES
Self-effacing bias (in “culture and human behavior” box)
The self-serving bias is common in individualistic cultures such as Australia and the United States, but it is far from universal. In many collectivistic cultures, an opposite attributional bias is often demonstrated
Involves blaming failure on

For example

Answer 13

Self-effacing bias (in “culture and human behavior” box)
The self-serving bias is common in individualistic cultures such as Australia and the United States, but it is far from universal. In many collectivistic cultures, an opposite attributional bias is often demonstrated
Involves blaming failure on internal, personal factors, while attributing success to external, situational factors.
For example, compared to U.S. students, Japanese and Chinese students are more likely to attribute academic failure to personal factors, such as lack of effort, instead of situational factors. Thus, a Japanese student who does poorly on an exam is likely to say, “I didn’t study hard enough.” In contrast, Japanese and Chinese students tend to attribute academic success to situational factors. For example, they might say, “The exam was very easy” or “There was very little competition this year”.

Question 14

ATTITUDES
Refers to
Non-Ex:
ABCE
What happens if your actions and beliefs conflict?

Answer 14

ATTITUDES
Refers to an enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, and ideas
Non-Ex: always like broccoli
Affective Emotional Component
Behavioral Component
Cognitive Component
Emotional component
What happens if your actions and beliefs conflict? Cognitive Dissonance

Question 15

ATTITUDES
example
Affective Emotional Component – Jill has a negative attitude toward fast-food restaurants
Behavioral Component –
Cognitive Component –
Emotional component –

Answer 15

Affective Emotional Component – Jill has a negative attitude toward fast-food restaurants
Behavioral Component – Predisposition to act in a particular way; boycott
Cognitive Component – beliefs, thoughts, ideas about the attitude object; discourage people from eating unhealthy
Emotional component – feelings and emotions about the attitude object; hate the greasy fries

Question 16

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Major assumptions
There’s a pressure toward
Dissonance occurs when
Ex:
Dissonance →
When behavior is inconsistent with beliefs, what can you do?

Answer 16

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Major assumptions
There’s a pressure toward consistency between attitude and behavior
Dissonance occurs when the 2 are inconsistent
Ex: believe in being green, but then you put your coke can in the trash
Dissonance → tension, feel pressure to reduce it because it makes you feel better
When behavior is inconsistent with beliefs, what can you do? Change your attitude!

Question 17

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Exception for external justification
If you behave inconsistently to your attitude because of reward or force,
If there’s no dissonance,
Ex:

Answer 17

Exception for external justification
If you behave inconsistently to your attitude because of reward or force, there’s no dissonance
If there’s no dissonance, no need to change your attitude
Ex: kidnapped to rob a bank, behaved in a way opposite of belief because you were forced for your life

Question 18

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Festinger & Carlsmith Study
Subjects performed a boring task; turn screw a quarter of the way for 30 mins.
Researchers said go tell next subject the task was enjoyable and engaging; asking them to lie
2 conditions: ($1) small amount vs. ($20) large amount of money to lie
Completed questionnaire a week later about how they enjoyed the task
Which subjects felt dissonance, thus,

Answer 18

Festinger & Carlsmith Study
Subjects performed a boring task; turn screw a quarter of the way for 30 mins.
Researchers said go tell next subject the task was enjoyable and engaging; asking them to lie
2 conditions: ($1) small amount vs. ($20) large amount of money to lie
Completed questionnaire a week later about how they enjoyed the task
Which subjects felt dissonance, thus, needed to change attitude: those payed $1 change their attitude, said they enjoyed participating in the study

Question 19

INFLUENCES ON ATTITUDE CHANGE
What factors affect the likelihood of attitude change?
-Expertise of the persuader –
ex:
-Likability of the persuader
—-
Ex:
—-
Ex:
-Frequency of communication –

Research found we prefer items; mere exposure effect:

Answer 19

INFLUENCES ON ATTITUDE CHANGE
What factors affect the likelihood of attitude change?
Expertise of the persuader – someone viewed as authority or expert, more influential, likely to change attitude
Trust mechanic, doctor
Likability of the persuader
Physical attractiveness
Ex: Attractive woman to sell product
Similarity
Ex: same religion, age, gender
Frequency of communication – repeating message you’ll persuade
Research found we prefer items;mere exposure effect: same ad popping up, more likely to choose that product because you’ve seen it over again

Question 20

PREJUDICE DEFINITIONS
Prejudice (affective component) is a
Ex:
Stereotype (cognitive component) is a
Ex:
Discrimination (behavioral component) is
Ex
Video: Racial Bias in Facial Recognition

Answer 20

PREJUDICE DEFINITIONS
Prejudice (affective component) is a hostile or negative feeling,
Ex: hostile feeling toward blonde people = prejudice
Stereotype (cognitive component) is a generalization about a group of people (membership of group)
Ex: I think all blondes are stupid
Discrimination (behavioral component) is an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group
Ex: assigning final grades, pull up pictures, based on percentages, but if I see a blonde, I’m gonna give a full grade less than what she actually got
Video: Racial Bias in Facial Recognition
Falsely identify client for crime didn’t commit; systems are racially bias, less accurate, not very diverse, false positive on minority groups, technology is flawed, cities are banning it, introduced bill ban facial recognition use; arrest shoplifting through facial recognition, now he has to prove it wasn’t him

Question 21

CAUSES OF PREJUDICE
Social categorization – first step to prejudice
definition: We _____

Video: Racially biased 911 calls

Consequences of in-group and out-groups
In-group bias or favoritism –
Ex:
Out-group homogeneity – perception that
Ex: ^conclusion that
Implicit attitudes –
Examples:

Implicit Association Test (IAT) – measures

Answer 21

CAUSES OF PREJUDICE
Social categorization – first step to prejudice
We create categories of “us” vs. “them”
Video:Racially biased 911 calls
Instances where police called unnecessarily; police are developing a community safety department, unarmed mental health workers in Albuquerque to replace 911 calls, trained expert, former 911 operator says there should be better way to reject biased calls, in Oregon you can be sued for these kind of calls
Consequences of in-group and out-groups
In-group bias or favoritism – positive feelings and special treatment towards people you’ve defined as part of your in-group and vice versa
Ex: Norden being working mom, shunned from group of moms
Out-group homogeneity – perception that those in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are
Ex: ^conclusion that all stay-at-home moms are b*tches
Implicit attitudes – preferences and biases toward particular groups that are automatic, spontaneous, unintentional, and often unconscious (can be positive and negative)
Examples: Norden’s kid assuming all Indians are better at science and math
Implicit Association Test (IAT) – measures these unconscious attitudes,

Question 22

REDUCING PREJUDICE
Contact hypothesis –
The reason white people are prejudice is because ___; help breakdown
Direct contact doesn’t really take place however
Ex:
Does mere contact work?
Conditions where contact may work better
If both groups have a ___: example?
Equal status – example

Jigsaw technique – children placed in small desegregated groups, each person gets one puzzle piece, only way for the group to do well, is if ___
This shows

Video: The Life and Work of Elliot Aronson – grew up in anti-semitic neighborhood; desegregation, highly competitive situation where black and brown people were made to fail, so they changed the nature of the room from competitive to cooperative, each kid had a piece of the action, each kid’s job to teach it to the others; results:
. Aronson learned from

Answer 22

REDUCING PREJUDICE
Contact hypothesis – direct intergroup contact might reduce prejudice
The reason white people are prejudice is because they’re ignorant, had no contact with black and brown people; help breakdown their stereotypes by getting to know different groups
Direct contact doesn’t really take place however
Ex: Milwaukee is one of the most segregated cities in our country
Does mere contact work? NOT ENOUGH
Conditions where contact may work better
If both groups have a common goal: soccer team white and brown working for same goal
Equal status – wealthy white homeowners employing black housekeeper, Mexican gardner, this contact might make it worse even though it’s contact; instead he needs to live by a wealthy minority homeowner
Jigsaw technique – children placed in small desegregated groups, each person gets one puzzle piece, only way for the group to do well, is if each person does their share
shows reduction in prejudice and stereotyping and better in school, more likely to interact with others
Video: The Life and Work of Elliot Aronson – grew up in anti-semitic neighborhood; desegregation, highly competitive situation where black and brown people were made to fail, so they changed the nature of the room from competitive to cooperative, each kid had a piece of the action, each kid’s job to teach it to the others; results: kids especially in minority groups did much better, played together, liked each other, school yard was integrated but only happened because of this. Aronson learned from Maslow positively influence and Festinger (cognitive dissonance)

Question 23

CONFORMITY
Refers to a

2 kinds of social influence:
Informational – influence of
Ex:
Normative – we want to
Ex:

Asch Study Example
1950s, goal of study is to see how students perform on a visual perception task (he lied), brought in one true subject and then 4 confederates to work with the researcher, goal is to which of the 3 comparison lines is close to the standard line (obviously B) so it’s not informational social influence; but then confederates start saying wrong answer
Results:

Answer 23

CONFORMITY
Refers to a change in behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
2 kinds of social influence:
Informational – influence of other people leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information that we think will help guide our behavior
Ex: flight attendant telling you to put your mask on in plane emergency
Normative – we want to be liked and accepted by them
Ex: trying to get with popular clique so you wear pink every Wednesday
Asch Study Example
1950s, goal of study is to see how students perform on a visual perception task (he lied), brought in one true subject and then 4 confederates to work with the researcher, goal is to which of the 3 comparison lines is close to the standard line (obviously B) so it’s not informational social influence; but then confederates start saying wrong answer
Results: 76% of subjects conformed at least once
37% of the time subjects gave an answer they knew was wrong

Question 24

CONFORMITY
Refers to a

2 kinds of social influence:
Informational – influence of
Ex:
Normative – we want to
Ex:

Asch Study Example
1950s, goal of study is to see how students perform on a visual perception task (he lied), brought in one true subject and then 4 confederates to work with the researcher, goal is to which of the 3 comparison lines is close to the standard line (obviously B) so it’s not informational social influence; but then confederates start saying wrong answer
Results:

Answer 24

CONFORMITY
Refers to a change in behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
2 kinds of social influence:
Informational – influence of other people leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information that we think will help guide our behavior
Ex: flight attendant telling you to put your mask on in plane emergency
Normative – we want to be liked and accepted by them
Ex: trying to get with popular clique so you wear pink every Wednesday
Asch Study Example
1950s, goal of study is to see how students perform on a visual perception task (he lied), brought in one true subject and then 4 confederates to work with the researcher, goal is to which of the 3 comparison lines is close to the standard line (obviously B) so it’s not informational social influence; but then confederates start saying wrong answer
Results: 76% of subjects conformed at least once
37% of the time subjects gave an answer they knew was wrong

Question 25

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY
Group size – the larger the group,

Asch Study – more conformity as

Group unanimity – social influence is most
Ex:

Asch study – 7 confederates when just 1 of the confederates gave the correct answer, the subjects only conformed 6% of the time; conformity decreased substantially
This is why

Commitment to the group –
Ex:

Some evidence that shows conformity is____; replication of studies every few years;
How can we resist conformity?

Answer 25

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY
Group size – the larger the group, the more conformity in general (up to a point)
Asch Study – more conformity as number of people increased (topped at 4 people)
Group unanimity – social influence is most powerful when everyone in group says or believes same thing
Ex: all 4 friends say movie was so good, but during the movie you thought it was mid
Asch study – 7 confederates when just 1 of the confederates gave the correct answer, the subjects only conformed 6% of the time; conformity decreased substantially
This is why people can hold such unpopular beliefs because you can find people who believe in the same thing
Commitment to the group – both positive and negative forces that act to keep a person in a group
Ex: joined fraternity, being a member is very important to you, then you’re more likely to conform to your brother’s beliefs and behaviors to maintain in frat

Some evidence that shows conformity is decreasing; replication of studies every few years; possible we’re getting better
How can we resist conformity? Find an ally, one other person who doesn’t want to go with the group

Question 26

OBEDIENCE
Refers to situations when

Interest increased after

People thought

Pathological people or powerful situation?

Obedience is part of socialization –

Being obedient is considered good,

Mindless obedience can have

Answer 26

OBEDIENCE
Refers to situations when an authority specifically commands us to change our behavior
Interest increased after WW II; news of Holocaust, people reacted with disbelief
How do we make sense of this?
People thought Internal Personality traits (evil, bad seed type of people)
Pathological people or powerful situation?
Obedience is part of socialization – parents, teachers, boss, police
Being obedient is considered good, to obey authority
Mindless obedience can have negative consequences – need to question authority

Question 27

MILGRAM STUDY
Conducted at Yale 1961
Subjects were Community members; answered ad in the paper to study learning; only male initially, and then replicated with females; paid to participate; true subject met with confederate; does punishment affect learning?
“Teacher” and “learner”; subject always “teacher”
Shock generator to help people learn
The more questions wrong, the stronger the shock was, once they started moving up, they’d hear the confederate scream with pain and say they don’t want to participate anymore
“the experiment requires that you continue” would the subject keep going?
___% of subjects went all the way to the end.
Even the people that stopped, ______
Unethical Study, Psychological trauma – subjects really thinking they’re hurting someone
Subjects were

You don’t really know what you’d do until

Validity of study –

Video: Milgram’s Obedience Studies – subject really wanted to

Answer 27

MILGRAM STUDY
Conducted at Yale 1961
Subjects were Community members; answered ad in the paper to study learning; only male initially, and then replicated with females; paid to participate; true subject met with confederate; does punishment affect learning?
“Teacher” and “learner”; subject always “teacher”
Shock generator to help people learn
The more questions wrong, the stronger the shock was, once they started moving up, they’d hear the confederate scream with pain and say they don’t want to participate anymore
“the experiment requires that you continue” would the subject keep going?
65% of subjects went all the way to the end.
Even the people that stopped, kept going and stopped at 315 volts.
Unethical Study, Psychological trauma – subjects really thinking they’re hurting someone
Subjects were agitated, nervous, distressed, but a lot of them were laughing out of nerves
You don’t really know until you’re in that situation what you would do
Validity of study – you don’t just ask what they’d do, but actually put them in the situation
Video: Milgram’s Obedience Studies – subject really wanted to check in on the learner, but still kept going to 450 volts

Question 28

MILGRAM STUDY EXPLANATIONS

Answer 28

MILGRAM STUDY EXPLANATIONS
Subjects’ expectations – do what experimenter says; paid to participate
Situation led to subject trusting experimenter – conducted at Yale
Shocks escalated gradually – “what’s one more shock?”
Experimenter reassured subject
Subject believed experimenter ultimately responsible “I was just following orders”

Question 29

STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
“Would obedience be lessened if orders aren’t being given, but instead implied?”
Conducted by Zimbardo in 1973
Developed prison in Stanford basement and hired male undergrads to be either prison guard or prisoner
Study duration – supposedly 2 weeks, but Zimbardo needed to stop at 6 days
Guards became abusive, which led to prisoners’ emotional breakdowns
Video: The Stanford Prison Experiment
silver sunglasses so you can’t see eyes (lose their humanity)
Civil rights background; student body subjects; payed $15 per day
Prisoners blindfolded, stripped; guards made fun of them
Subject thought the point of study was to show how cruel prisons are so he followed rules; Guards felt they _____

One subject acted insane “experience of out of control” so ____
Changed major to psychology and became prison psychologist
Hunger strike from prisoner; made guards mad for all they’ve worked on (Day 5)
Good people can do bad things; good people in evil place… _____-
Fellow female psychologist was really mad about it (grad student, Zimbardo’s girlfriend) when she saw, said “if this is who you are and think that’s okay, then I don’t want to be with you” so it was his girlfriend that made him realize it was bad
Situation led to negative behavior; _____
Deindividuation – when you feel ___
Guards were wearing ___
real life ex:

Answer 29

STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
“Would obedience be lessened if orders aren’t being given, but instead implied?”
Conducted by Zimbardo in 1973
Developed prison in Stanford basement and hired male undergrads to be either prison guard or prisoner
Study duration – supposedly 2 weeks, but Zimbardo needed to stop at 6 days
Guards became abusive, which led to prisoners’ emotional breakdowns
Video: The Stanford Prison Experiment
silver sunglasses so you can’t see eyes (lose their humanity)
Civil rights background; student body subjects; payed $15 per day
Prisoners blindfolded, stripped; guards made fun of them
Subject thought the point of study was to show how cruel prisons are so he followed rules; Guards felt they have to become more tough
One subject acted insane “experience of out of control” so he was first to release
Changed major to psychology and became prison psychologist
Hunger strike from prisoner; made guards mad for all they’ve worked on (Day 5)
Good people can do bad things; good people in evil place, evil placed over the good people
Fellow female psychologist was really mad about it (grad student, Zimbardo’s girlfriend) when she saw, said “if this is who you are and think that’s okay, then I don’t want to be with you” so it was his girlfriend that made him realize it was bad
Situation led to negative behavior; no one ordered the guards to degrade and humiliate them, but put them in an evil place, evil ends up winning
Deindividuation – when you feel anonymous, you experience a decrease in self-awareness and lowered inhibitions that may lead you to behave in ways that are contrary to your values
Guards were wearing same uniforms, mirrored sunglasses, which is why kids end up doing minor crimes on Halloween, because no one will knows, military, help you behave in aggressive way

Question 30

HELPING BEHAVIOR
Kitty Genovese murder case – outside her apartment; became media sensation across country; legend has it 38 people heard her screaming and no one helped her; initial explanation based on ???

Darley and Latane coined the “bystander effect” → the greater the

Study example
Told college students purpose was to understand transition to college
Subject put in room with headphones and microphone, discussion, will be notified of turn to talk
Independent variable how many people did they think was in the discussion
True subject listening to another subject in different room (actually a recording so everyone’s listening same thing)
Recording saying transition was hard because they have epilepsy
True subject while talking hears person say they’re dizzy and pass out
Dependent Variable –

When number is 0 (number of others presumed available to help) , 85% attempted to help within 60 seconds. As the number of others presumed available to help increased, the percentage attempted to help ___

When you feel there’s more people, you feel _____

Answer 30

HELPING BEHAVIOR
Kitty Genovese murder case – outside her apartment; became media sensation across country; legend has it 38 people heard her screaming and no one helped her; initial explanation based on internal personality or dispositional factors (“you know how New Yorkers are, cold hearted, would never happen hear in Kansas”)
Darley and Latane coined the “bystander effect” → the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
Study example
Told college students purpose was to understand transition to college
Subject put in room with headphones and microphone, discussion, will be notified of turn to talk
Independent variable how many people did they think was in the discussion
True subject listening to another subject in different room (actually a recording so everyone’s listening same thing)
Recording saying transition was hard because they have epilepsy
True subject while talking hears person say they’re dizzy and pass out
Dependent Variable – how quickly if at all, leave the room and go get help for the other subjects
When number is 0 (number of others presumed available to help) , 85% attempted to help within 60 seconds. As the number of others presumed available to help increased, the percentage attempted to help decreased
When you feel there’s more people, you feel less responsible

Question 31

EXPLANATIONS FOR BYSTANDER EFFECT
Diffusion of responsibility – sense of responsibility is ?

Ambiguity of situation – ?

Pluralistic ignorance – ?
Evaluation apprehension – ?
ex:

Answer 31

EXPLANATIONS FOR BYSTANDER EFFECT
Diffusion of responsibility – sense of responsibility is spread out between people
Ambiguity of situation – sometimes potential helper doesn’t know if it’s an emergency
Pluralistic ignorance – bystanders assume nothing is wrong because no one else looks concerned; look to the actions of other people if anyone’s stepping in
Evaluation apprehension – we worry if we try to help we’ll do something wrong and other people will be critical or evaluate us negatively; won’t step in for CPR because you haven’t done it in years

Question 32

FACTORS WHICH INCREASE HELPING BEHAVIOR
4 reasons

Answer 32

FACTORS WHICH INCREASE HELPING BEHAVIOR
Good mood – “Feel Good, Do Good” Effect
If others are helping – breaks pluralistic ignorance
If person is deserving of help – well-dressed vs. homeless
Knowing how to help

Question 33

FACTORS WHICH DECREASE HELPING BEHAVIOR
Big city or small town
Ex: big city
Ex: small town

Situation is ambiguous – Ex:

Costs outweigh the benefits – ex:

Video: Whom Do We Help? – actress collapsed on the ground; once one person stepped up, other people came; more likely to help female, feel you can do more, more empathetic; one person hesitated, depended on person, but she’s needed help like that before, so she tries to do the same; actor holding beer; no one stopped to help; assumption of what happened to him to recognize his distress; after 7 mins, man stopped, so others did too

Answer 33

FACTORS WHICH DECREASE HELPING BEHAVIOR
Big city or small town
Ex: Time Square; so much going on; overwhelming, overstimulating, you shut it out
Ex: likely you know everybody, gonna judge other people
Situation is ambiguous – Ex: harassed by guy outside bar, people don’t know; yell you don’t know them; make it clear you need help
Costs outweigh the benefits – ex: elderly lady needs help, but you’re going to be late to work
Video: Whom Do We Help? – actress collapsed on the ground; once one person stepped up, other people came; more likely to help female, feel you can do more, more empathetic; one person hesitated, depended on person, but she’s needed help like that before, so she tries to do the same; actor holding beer; no one stopped to help; assumption of what happened to him to recognize his distress; after 7 mins, man stopped, so others did too

Question 34

SOCIAL LOAFING
Occurs when

When individual performance cannot be identified → ____ → _____

Ways to reduce/eliminate social loafing
if task is __
If group consists of ___
Teachers making individual performance is being identified
which gender is more likely to engage in social loafing?

Answer 34

SOCIAL LOAFING
Occurs when each individual is less productive in a group than if he or she worked individually
When individual performance cannot be identified → relaxation → loafing
Ways to reduce/eliminate social loafing
if task meaningful to group members
If group consists of people you know
Teachers making individual performance is being identified
Men more likely to engage than women

Question 35

SOCIAL FACILITATION VS. SOCIAL INHIBITION
Social facilitation means _____
Important variable =
If simple, well learned task, having people watch, _____
However, doing something for first time (never given speech) not ____, having a lot of people may cause you to perform worse → ______
Social inhibition means that

Zajonc’s explanation → ___

Arousal helps performance on
Arousal impairs performance on

Answer 35

SOCIAL FACILITATION VS. SOCIAL INHIBITION
Social facilitation means that the mere presence of others cases you to perform a task better
Important variable = difficulty of task
If simple, well learned task, having people watch, will make you do better
However, doing something for first time (never given speech) not going to make it easy or better, having a lot of people may cause you to perform worse → Social inhibition
Social inhibition means that the presence of others impairs your performance
Zajonc’s explanation → presence of others increases physiological arousal (breathing, heart rate, adrenaline output) helps you perform task, propels you to do better
Arousal helps performance on simple tasks
Arousal impairs performance on difficult task

Question 36

STRESS
Defined as a

Answer 36

STRESS
Defined as a negative emotional experience that occurs when demands on a person are greater than his or her capabilities

Question 37

WHAT MAKES EVENTS STRESSFUL?
Multiple sources of stress listed in text; what do they have in common?
Unpleasant or negative events – ex?
Uncontrollable or unpredictable events ___ ex
Ambiguous events – ___ ex
Unresolvable events – ___ ex

Answer 37

WHAT MAKES EVENTS STRESSFUL?
Multiple sources of stress listed in text; what do they have in common?
Unpleasant or negative events (getting fired)
Uncontrollable or unpredictable events (outdoor wedding, have no alternative options when raining); there’s nothing you can do, no planning
Ambiguous events – spend time worrying about it (dating a guy won’t call)
Unresolvable events – something you can’t overcome; final exams vs. chronic health condition

Question 38

MEASURING STRESS
Holmes and Rahe defined stress as ____ ex
Definition refers to ___ ex
Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) – check items off list, life change unit score, add up the scores, discover that the higher scores = ____
more life change units, positive and negative, more likely you ____
Table 13.1 – top of list is ___
bottom of list _____

Answer 38

MEASURING STRESS
Holmes and Rahe defined stress as the degree to which you have to change and readjust your life to an external event (parking ticket, going to college, getting fired, married, divorce)
Definition refers to both positive and negative events (graduating college is positive, but you have to move, work 8ams)
Social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) – check items off list, life change unit score, add up the scores, discover that the higher scores = more likelihood of illness; more life change units, positive and negative, more likely you were to be sick
Table 13.1 – top of list is Death of spouse, divorce, marital separation; bottom of list, minor violations of the law, christmas, vacation

Question 39

LINK BETWEEN OBJECTIVE STRESS AND PHYSICAL ILLNESS
Using undergrads because tend to get sick around final exams (probably psychological stress)
Study examined the presence of immunoglobulin A in undergraduates’ saliva
Tested before, during, and after final exam week
Immunoglobulin is body’s primary defense against germs
Substance
Psychological stress can

Answer 39

LINK BETWEEN OBJECTIVE STRESS AND PHYSICAL ILLNESS
Using undergrads because tend to get sick around final exams (probably psychological stress)
Study examined the presence of immunoglobulin A in undergraduates’ saliva
Tested before, during, and after final exam week
Immunoglobulin is body’s primary defense against germs
Substance dropped during exam week, then returned to normal levels
Psychological stress can change body chemistry

Question 40

PROBLEMS WITH LIFE EVENTS APPROACH
Link between scores on SRRS and development of illness is ___
Fairly fine with getting married, going to college
What events have worse impact ?
(having baby is stressful but you’ve been wanting it)
Frequence of daily hassles may be ___

Ex:

Answer 40

PROBLEMS WITH LIFE EVENTS APPROACH
Link between scores on SRRS and development of illness fairly weak
Fairly fine with getting married, going to college
Negative events have worse impact (having baby is stressful but you’ve been wanting it)
Frequence of daily hassles may be better predictor compared to major life events
Ex: daily hassles, everyday you’re looking for your car keys; grocery prices keep increasing