Ch. 9: Lifespan of Development

Question 1

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
3 periods

Answer 1

Germinal and Embryonic and Fetal Periods

Question 2

Germinal Period – when, what happens, what happens once developed

Answer 2

1st 2 weeks post conception
Sperm and egg meeting in fallopian tube
Then travel into the uterus
Needs to implant and attach to uterine wall
Fertilized egg separates into 2 masses: placenta and embryo( → fetus → child)
Once developed, the placenta serves as intermediary between child and mom and the placenta provides oxygen , nourishment through umbilical cord

Question 3

Embryonic Period – when, amnion, developing, what’s happening danger from

Answer 3

Occurs between weeks 3-8
At the end of the period embryo is about 1 inch long
Amnion – thin, tough, transparent membrane holding amnion fluid that surrounds the embryo (water broke); cushions the embryo (moms can move however they want)
Developing at a rapid pace, Organs and major systems of the body are formed, this is the time embryo greatest risk from teratogens
Danger from teratogens – any harmful agent or substance that can cause birth defects or death

Question 4

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: EFFECT OF ALCOHOL; where all cross, depresses what, stays in what, most severe result of alcohol use?, how many kids are born with FAS, symptoms, how much is too much

Answer 4

Alcohol crosses placental membrane almost immediately, depressing Central Nervous System CNS
Stays in fetal bloodstream
Most severe result of alcohol use: Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) symptoms and prevalence
170 kids are born with FAS
Symptoms: cognitive disability, poor motor development, hyperactivity, short attention span, retarded growth, distinctive facial characteristics (small head, low nasal bridge, underdeveloped jaw, thin upper lip, shorot nose, small eye openings, flat midface, smooth philtrum)
How much alcohol is too much? Depends
12-month pregnancy concept – people don’t find out they’re pregnant until 6 weeks, if she stops drinking when she finds out, their children are still at risk of FAS
Recommended to clear your body of any and all teratogens when trying to get pregnant
Alcohol’s effect on caretaking ability – can makes newborns harder to take care of; going back to drinking after birth

Question 5

Fetal period; occurs when, developing child becomes, fetus is what, rapid what, quickening?, when feel more movement like kicking, layer of what added when, fetus receives what, what happens when pregnant women take COVID vaccine

Answer 5

Occurs from 9th week until birth (around 38 weeks)
Developing child becoming more complex, organs begin to work, function
Fetus is swallowing, urinating
Rapid brain development, increases about 6x during this period developing new and new neurons,
Quickening – feel the baby move (like a bubbling from drinking soda)
7-9 months, you can feel more movement like kicking
Layer of fat added in 8th month helps with temperature regulation it’s why premature infants need to be incubators so need to be safe and warm environment to regulate surroundings
Fetus receives antibodies from mom’s blood to protect against illnesses; newborn’s immune system does NOT function well, takes several months before developing healthy immune system; limit outside contact
When pregnant women, take COVID vaccine, and then gave birth, discovered covid antibodies in baby

Question 6

INFANT PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES: VISION; what is the vision at birth, when vision gets to 20/20, depth perception – Gibson study?

Answer 6

Vision at birth is 20/300 – they can see your face but not much beyond it, can’t see far away; looks out at world with a blur
By the time they’re 1 year old, their vision is 20/20
Depth perception – Gibson study
Figure out if babies have depth perception 6-14 months babies, crawling ability required; crawling on pattern, across plexiglass. Does the baby notice the pattern below him? Yes. Achieved depth perception

Question 7

INFANT PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES: HEARING; when does it begin, “cat in the hat” study

Answer 7

Begins even before birth, registers experiences; one they register well is mom’s voice
“Cat in the Hat” study
Pregnant women read aloud this story twice a day for the last 6 weeks of pregnancy; gave pacifier, if like what they’re hearing, they’ll keep sucking on it. Discovered that newborns would suck to hear their mom reading “Cat in the Hat”. if they hear another woman’s voice reading the story, they wouldn’t like it.
Low vs. high-frequency sounds
Low is not as good as high

Question 8

TEMPERAMENT; def, 4 categories, percents

Answer 8

Refers to child’s inborn predisposition to behave and react in a certain way; when you’re born, certain aspects of personalities are developed, babies differ
4 categories:
Easy (40% of infants) – happy, not crying tons, approach new things with positive attitude, end up getting predictable eating and sleeping patterns and routine, adjust easy to change
Difficult (10%) – tend have irregular sleeping and waking patterns, cry a lot, more negative and irritable, don’t adjust to change well.
Slow-to-warm-up (15%) – aren’t crying or happy all the time; don’t have a lot of intense reactions positive or negative; adapt more slowly to new situations or people, may shut down a little until comfortable
Hard to classify (35%) – not consistent, may show more than 2 categories

Question 9

ATTACHMENT THEORY def, why attachment important

Answer 9

Refers to the close emotional bond of affection between a child and his or her caregivers
Attachment important because may have impact on how we relate to others throughout our lives (friends, significant others)

Question 10

ATTACHMENT THEORY: Harlow research; studied? how did monkey react to scary apparatus? how relates to humans

Answer 10

– studied monkeys and how they’re attached to their parents; took away mothers, monkeys chose the terry cloth monkey without food (contact comfort) Gives great feeling of security of mother
How did the monkey react to the scary apparatus? Terry Cloth mother, change his personality – threatening
Didn’t believe the belief that whoever’s feeding you, you’ll be attached to them
How relates to humans – 1 yr old and mom playing with toys, take away mom, and replace with stranger, baby cries

Question 11

ATTACHMENT THEORY: 2 kinds, 2 sub categories, percents

Answer 11

Secure – 65% of infants
Fine as long as mom is there, but once mom leaves, they’re upset and distressed; easily calmed down, just needs to be held
Insecure
Avoidant – 20%
Even before stranger appears, they’re avoiding and not engaging with mom; when mom leaves, don’t care, don’t go to her when she comes back
Ambivalent – 12%
They display both positive and negative reactions to mom; might get very upset when mom leaves, when mom gets back, can be different reaction; want contact but don’t want comfort as much

Question 12

ATTACHMENT THEORY: reasons for differences in attachment; key element? what makes ambivalent and avoidant attachment; what happens if infant is rated as securely attached at age 1? effect on adult relationships

Answer 12

Reasons for differences in attachment
Mom’s behavior; key element is sensitivity in caregiving – every time infant cries, you go pick them up, figure out their needs; baby can learn not to depend on another person
Infant’s behavior
Difficult temperament + insensitive and unresponsive care = ambivalent attachment
Easy-going temperament + insensitive, intrusive, overstimulating care = avoidant attachment
If infant is rated as securely attached at age 1:
Better peer relationship, greater empathy at age 3.5
Greater self-esteem, independence social skills at age 5
Effect on adult relationships? Could accept unreliability or whatever you learned from mom to friends and significant others

Question 13

DAYCARE AND DEVELOPMENT
How does daycare affect children?
Reasons why it’s difficult to answer

Answer 13

No random assignment
Differences a result of day care or differences between family? Could be other factors like quality of caregiving or economic status
Wide range of quality in day care

Question 14

DAY CARE AND DEVELOPMENT: TYPICAL RESEARCH FINDINGS
Relationship between day care and illness; Cognitive differences? Differences in social development? quality most important factors?

Answer 14

Higher risk of both minor and more serious illnesses, getting sick
HOWEVER by the time they get to kindergarten, immune system built up, they’re less likely to get sick
cognitive differences – Kids have advanced cognitive and language abilities in day care
Differences in social development
Tend be more self-confidence, independent, ongoing, assertive, more knowledgeable about social world, know how to share, take turns, wait in a line
Quality most important factor – matters less where they’re being cared for, more about HOW they’re cared for

Question 15

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
who, when, what was she, what did she do, believed in what

Answer 15

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) major pioneer
Major pioneer, direct observation of kids (especially his own); Watched his own kids, comparing oldest vs youngest
Believed in fixed sequence of universal stages
Believed in stage theory rather than development
Quality of cognition differ

Question 16

COGNITIVE THEORY: 4 DISTINCT STAGES

Answer 16

sensorimotor, pre operational stage, concrete operations stage, formal operations

Question 17

COGNITIVE THEORY: 4 DISTINCT STAGES
Sensorimotor
when, important accomplishment is __, definition of OP, what develops, believed it appears at __ months, ex? results?

Answer 17

= birth to 2
Important accomplishment is object permanence (motor skills, senses)
Object permanence – defined as the realization that objects (including people) still exist when they cannot be seen, touched or heard
Sensory and motor skills develop
Believed it appeared at 8 months
Ex: Covering a toy to see if a baby understands the toy still exists
Does classic design assess concepts well? Have to be motivated to find it
A not B error, likely to give up when they don’t find toy in spot it was in last time
Does this test represent object permanence?
Kid might lose motivation, not paying attention, have to have motor skills
New research says OP might occur earlier
2 teddy bears, possible impossible outcome
Shocked by impossible outcome, shows they understand that there should only be 1 bear
2.5 month old stared longer

Question 18

COGNITIVE THEORY: 4 DISTINCT STAGES
Preoperational stage
when, definition of “operations”, “pre”, 3 shortcomings? what do they refer to

Answer 18

occurs from age 2-6
“Operations” = refers to mental actions that allow a child to reason about events he or she experiences; the use of formal, logical mental processes
“Pre-” suggestive of limitations
Three shortcomings
Egocentrism – refers to the tendency of a person to confuse his or her own point of view and that of another person
Not selfishness, as much as centering on the self in thinking
Ex: driving to a play with traffic, kid goes “wow there is a lot of people going to this play”)
Classification Skills – refers to the placement of objects in groups or categories according to some specific standard or criteria
Can classify objects on one dimension
Problem of categories and subcategories
Conservation – refers to the understanding that basic physical dimensions remain the same despite superficial changes in the object’s appearance
Ex: water and beaker example, one looks like it’s fuller, but it’s not
Conservation of solid quantity (playdough rolled out)
Conservation of numbers (row of checkers spread out)
Difference between spontaneous ability vs. capability, differ from Paiget’s standpoint

Question 19

COGNITIVE THEORY: 4 DISTINCT STAGES
Concrete operations Stage
when,
Children’s cognitive “actions” are applied to ___
Classification and conversation achieved
Ex

Answer 19

Concrete operations Stage = occurs age 7-11
Children’s cognitive “actions” are applied to concrete objects or events; logic is used
Classification and conversation achieved
Ex: collection and sorting is common
Main limitation is that children remain tied to concrete, physical reality; they are unable to understand truly abstract or hypothetical questions, or ones that involve formal logic
Remain tied to concrete, physical reality, unable to understand truly abstract or hypothetical questions, or once that involve formal logic

Question 20

COGNITIVE THEORY: 4 DISTINCT STAGES
Formal operations when,
Differences from concrete operations

Answer 20

Formal operations = occurs age 12-adolescence
Differences from concrete operations
Emphasis on possible vs. real
Use of scientific reasoning
Logically combining ideas
Main limitation = when adolescents first begin to use logical principles they become overly impressed and idealistic with their thinking abilities, think any problem is solved if you use logical thinking…don’t understand practical limits and instead come up with simplistic solutions

Question 21

EVALUATING PIAGET’S APPROACH
Problems with stage approach
Individual
Cultural differences
Inconsistencies even w/ the same person
Problems?

Answer 21

Problems with stage approach
-Individual:
-Cultural differences
-Inconsistencies even w/ the same person
-Problem of underestimating children’s abilities
-Problem of overestimating how much people use formal operational thought (thought teens use formal operational thinking all the time but research shows it is inconsistent)
Problems of underestimating the importance of social and cultural environment; Vygotsky and “zone of proximal development”
Children learn because of presence of siblings, parents, teacher, impact of ppl around them
“Zone of proximal development” - what the learner could understand with guidance

Question 22

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Developed by Erikson
Psychosocial =
Stages go from ?
how many stages
Conflict =
Importance of ?
when does Development stop?

Answer 22

Developed by Erikson
Psychosocial = union between physical needs and culture/environment
Stages go from birth to old age (8 stages)
Conflict = “crisis” at each stage, must resolve in order to move on to next stage
Importance of favorable ratio, can’t completely solve these crises, need good ratio
Development continues throughout whole life

Question 23

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Trust vs. mistrust
Age? trust?
Mistrust
Related to attachment theory
Video Example: when care is predictable, trust environment, –> ; we all have dose of skepticism, to survive, baby must have ___

Answer 23

Age: birth-one year
trust : infant can count on getting his needs met (diaper change, being held, fed)
Mistrust: infant feels helpless and abandoned (sometimes baby has to cry for an hour before mom shows up)
Related to attachment theory– more mistrust than trust (insecure: avoidant or ambivalent)
Video Example: when care is predictable, trust environment, feel like they belong; mistrust feel world is safe or reliable; we all have dose of skepticism, to survive, baby must have some care, balance of these qualities

Question 24

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Autonomy vs. doubt
Ages ?
Developing a lot of ?
Doubt
Ex:
“Terrible 2’s”

Answer 24

Ages 1-3
Developing a lot of motor skills (walk, open doors) and independence
Doubt: feeling of being controlled and losing self-control
Ex: “me do”
“Terrible 2’s” – losing self-control

Question 25

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Initiative vs. guilt
Ages?
Initiative
Ex:
Guilt:
Ex:

Answer 25

Initiative vs. guilt
Ages 3-6
Intiivatve: acting on your desires and potentials, developing confidence
Ex: “can we go to the park today, I’m the best soccer player”
Guilt: development of conscience, needing to restrain desires appropriately
Ex: disobeyed mom

Question 26

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Competence vs. inferiority
Ages
Competence:
Ex:
Inferiority:
Ex:

Answer 26

Competence vs. inferiority
Ages 6-12
Competence: child applying himself to learning
Ex: “I can read, I know my multiplication tables”
Inferiority: child perceives his skills or status to be inadequate
Ex: someone got better test score than you; don’t have latest phone

Question 27

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES
2 basic dimensions of parenting

Answer 27

Control – rule children with iron fist, more likely to use physical discipline; low control – no consequences
Nurturing/responsiveness – some parents are warm, loving, listen to kids; others are cold, clinical, only their way

Question 28

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES
Authoritarian – parent
Kids tend to be

Answer 28

Authoritarian – parent centered, not warm, high in control, more likely physical, have attitude of my way, don’t take feelings or needs into account
Kids tend to be more unhappy, moody, fearful, irritable, withdrawn, less likely to try new things, tend show lower self-esteem, think harsh aggressive methods will solve problems

Question 29

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES
Permissive-Indifferent
Ex:

Answer 29

Permissive-Indifferent (absent, neglectful)
Ex: Doesn’t notice that Jess is up late; Jeff has no regular bedtime

Question 30

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES
Permissive-Indulgent
Kids more likely to have
Ex:

Answer 30

Permissive-Indulgent (nurturing, but low in control and demand, no rules, want to be more of a friend, want kid to like them
Kids more likely to have huge sense of entitlement, spoiled, center of universe, aggressive, impulsive, lack self-control, self-reliance, low in independence; positives: cheerful
Ex: says, “find, if it’s that important to you.”

Question 31

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES
Authoritative
Kids tend to be

Answer 31

Authoritative: high in control, not as much as authoritarian, have rules, expectations, regulations, consequences, but they’re reasonable, also child-centered and responsive, willing to negotiate, hear kids, generally associated with best outcome for child
Kids tend socially confident, self-control, assertive, helpful, more likely to have healthy sense of self esteem, friendly, self-reliant, cheerful,

Question 32

CHANGES DURING PUBERTY
Rapid growth and weight gain
Average height 11 yr old, grow to be

Answer 32

Average height 11 yr old 5 ft tall, grow to be 5’9; girls 5’4
Girls have earlier growth spurt
Boys keep growing and become taller than girls after age 14

Question 33

CHANGES DURING PUBERTY
Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics
Primary =
Secondary =
Girls: 1st menstrual period aka __
signals beginning of period is
Boys:

Answer 33

Primary = directly involved in reproduction
Secondary = indicates increasing sexual maturity (uterus bigger, eggs)
Girls: 1st menstrual period (menarche) signals beginning of period is FALSE; pubic hair, breasts, growth spurt
Boys: 1st ejaculation of seminal fluid; changes in genitals
Changes in genitals/breasts, growth of body hair, deepening of voice in boys

Question 34

CHANGES DURING PUBERTY
Changes in body composition
Average weight gain is
Boys tend, girls tend

Answer 34

Changes in body composition
Average weight gain is 38 lbs, 42 lbs for boys
Boys tend put more muscle, girls tend gain more fat, hips, butt; boys generally happier

Question 35

EFFECTS OF EARLY MATURATION
Boys
Advantages:
Disadvantages:

Answer 35

Advantages: more muscles - more peer and adult approval, more popular, better at sports
Disadvantages: more likely to become involved in delinquency and substance abuse; hang with older kids, do stuff he shouldn’t be doing

Question 36

EFFECTS OF EARLY MATURATION
Girls
Advantages:
Disadvantages:

Answer 36

Advantages: maybe more popular with boys
Disadvantages: feel less attractive, poorer self-concepts, more sexual attention from boys, more truncy, academic problems, and drug and alcohol use; attention from older boys, doing things they shouldn’t

Question 37

ADOLESCENT RELATIONSHIPS: PARENTS
Adolescents want; parents understand
Difficult for parents
“Generation gap”?
Research suggests

Most parent/adolescent relationships characterized by love and respect
idea that all teens hate their parents, parenting teens suck, is

Answer 37

Adolescents want increasing dependence from parents; parents understand it’s necessary and it’s a good thing
Difficult for parents
“Generation gap”
Research suggests that there isn’t a huge generation gap; may agree on work ethic, religion, social issues, politics
Adolescents and their parents have similar views in variety of areas
Differences exist over issues of personal taste (music taste, clothing)
Most parent/adolescent relationships characterized by love and respect
idea that all teens hate their parents, parenting teens suck, is a myth

Question 38

ADOLESCENT RELATIONSHIPS: PEERS
Impact of peer pressure
Social issues:
Nonsocial issues:

Answer 38

ADOLESCENT RELATIONSHIPS: PEERS
Impact of peer pressure
Social issues: clothing, music, dating
Nonsocial issues: choosing career path, friends don’t have experience–won’t turn to friends, kids turn to experts

Question 39

CONCEPT OF ADULTHOOD
When do you become an adult?
Importance of role transitions (involves assuming new responsibilities, duties)
Examples:
Social clock –

Answer 39

When do you become an adult?
Importance of role transitions (involves assuming new responsibilities, duties)
Examples: Completing education, full-time employment, establishing independent household, marriage, kids
Social clock – the culturally-set timetable that establishes when role transitions are appropriate (best age to get married, finish school)

Question 40

DECIDING TO HAVE CHILDREN: REASONS

Answer 40

DECIDING TO HAVE CHILDREN: REASONS
Love of children, want to be involved in their care, but don’t have to love children to have them
Desire to experience pregnancy and childbirth
Demonstrate adult status, prove they’re grown
Impact of own childhood experiences, want to recreate your own experiences or give kids more than what you had
Conform to social expectations, religions, friends
Contraceptive failure

Question 41

DECIDING TO HAVE CHILDREN
Childlessness increasing
in 1976
in 2016,
Reasons for smaller families
Delayed childbearing – delaying ?
Infertility –
Financial concerns –

Answer 41

Childlessness increasing
in 1976 9% women were childless
in 2016, 17% of women were childless
Reasons for smaller families
Delayed childbearing – delaying marriage
Infertility – some women put off kids until they’re in their 30s, have to take tests, etc.
Financial concerns – not cheap

Question 42

PARENTHOOD AND MARITAL SATISFACTION
How does the birth of a first child affect marital satisfaction?
Gender differences
Which couples are most unhappy after birth of first child?
Make sure relationship with partner is
Leading conflict in first months is
Way to increase happiness
Research study:
What about empty nest?
Research says marital satisfaction increases because

Answer 42

How does the birth of a first child affect marital satisfaction?
Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child, parents say they struggle the most
More responsibility, more work has to be done
Gender differences
Women more unhappy because then have more lion share of work and responsibility, only one who can nurse, still doing bulk of housework even after maternity leave
Which couples are most unhappy after birth of first child?
Couples that were the least happy to begin with (want to have another kid to fix relationship)
Make sure relationship with partner is solid before having kids
Leading conflict in first months is who doing what
Way to increase happiness
the more the husband do, the happier the marriage is – positive correlation
Research study: interviewed couple right after birth, 6 months later, 18 months later, the more the husbands did, at 6 months, wives happier, but husbands not, but at 18 months later, both happy, happier marriage
What about empty nest?
A little sad, but vast majority of parents are happy
Research says marital satisfaction increases because parents have more time together

Question 43

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Levinson’s stages (3)

Answer 43

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Levinson’s stages
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

Question 44

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Levinson’s stages
Early adulthood when
Big decisions
Pursuing goals can

Answer 44

(~20 to 40-45)
Big decisions: marriage, kids, career,
Pursuing goals can be stressful

Question 45

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Levinson’s stages
Middle adulthood when,
Midlife transition or midlife crisis?
Research

Answer 45

Middle adulthood (40-45 to 65)
Midlife transition or midlife crisis?
Research: it isn’t very common, more likely to have midlife transition – reevaluating life and goals
Happiness in midlife, some it’s their greatest times in their lives, rekindle romance, no more kids, good experience, job
No more or less traumatic in adulthood, can be rewarding

Question 46

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Levinson’s stages
Late adulthood when,
A lot of people still working because
Research:

Answer 46

Late adulthood (65 and beyond)
A lot of people still working because they enjoy, financial reasons
Research: people in good health are generally happier and more satisfied with life, have more leisure time, can focus on family, travel

Question 47

ACTIVITY THEORY OF AGING
How do people age successfully?
Criticism
Ex?
“Healthy Aging: The Power of Positive Thinking” Video Example
people happier when
Men playing baseball, say they’ve felt better now than they ever have – “ ”
The secret =

Answer 47

ACTIVITY THEORY OF AGING
How do people age successfully? Depends
Suggests that the people who are the most happy are those who are fully involved and engaged with the world, hobbies, socialize
Criticism
Makes no distinction between types of activities
Slot machines vs. amusement park with family
“Healthy Aging: The Power of Positive Thinking” Video Example
people happier when acting like kids
Men playing baseball, say they’ve felt better now than they ever have – “clean living”
The secret = attitude
Medical advantages have made huge difference in aging better
more and more people are becoming independent
Same energy levels, think young and in relatively good health is very important
Physical realities do creep in: death, disease
Love, exercise, spirituality, regular doctor visits can make you feel younger
STAY PHYSICALLY ACTIVE

Question 48

DYING AND DEATH
People more anxious in

Answer 48

DYING AND DEATH
People more anxious in middle age period, once in old age, less anxious

Question 49

KUBLER-ROSS’ THEORY
Theory developed by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
Stage theory based
Suggested that
(5 stages of grief) Denial – Some researchers say
Anger – at
Bargaining –
Depression –
Acceptance –
Theory limited to those who
Stages are not
Too few stages?
Researchers argue
Many individual differences on how people handle it; important factors:
Cause of dying ex
How long the process lasts depends on

Answer 49

Theory developed by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
Stage theory based one extensive interviews on people who are dying and those who cared for people dying
Suggested that people pass through five stages
Denial – defense mechanism permits people to absorb news in their own time
Some researchers say it can be positive short term
Anger – at a lot of people, people in good health, spouses, children, medical professionals, God
Bargaining – if you’re good, you’ll be rewarded, negotiate their way out of death, promises (rarely kept)
Helps keep people alive longer
Depression – sense of loss, sadness, realizing they’ll never be able to do things
Acceptance – peace with cycle of life
KUBLER-ROSS’ THEORY
Theory limited to those who are aware they are dying
Stages are not universal, don’t occur in same sequence for everyone
Too few stages?
Researchers argue anxiety about the afterlife, pain, leaving people behind
Many individual differences on how people handle it; important factors:
Cause of dying – smoker vs. non smoker from lung cancer
How long the process lasts
Person’s age, gender, personality
Social support available

Question 50

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - Sigmund Freud
Personality defined
What makes us unique?
Very broad theory
Began as
Fascinated by
Asked about
“Talking cure”,

Answer 50

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - Sigmund Freud
Personality defined as consistent patterns of thought, feelings, and behavior that originate within the individual
What makes us unique?
Freud – one of the most influential thinkers
Very broad theory
Began as medical doctor, treated hysteria, couldn’t find physical cause of problems
Fascinated by medical symptoms but no underlying biological cause
Asked about stressors, relationships
“Talking cure”, theory came from observations of patients; what they would tell him, found in common with people

Question 51

THREE LEVELS OF AWARENESS
Freud
Iceberg picture
Majority of iceberg locating beneath surface, in

Answer 51

THREE LEVELS OF AWARENESS
Conscious – thoughts, feelings, sensations you’re aware of
Preconscious – information you’re currently not aware of but can be brought to consciousness
What’s the day of the week today?
Unconscious – contains repressed or forgotten memories, feelings, and thoughts; things overwhelmed, scary, you don’t want to think about
Dominant, large part of mind according to Freud
Greatly influences behavior even if you’re not aware
Affects dreams
Revealed in unintentional accidents or actions
Student calling teacher mom
Ego – outside in world, rational, planful, mediating dimension of personality
Iceberg picture
Majority of iceberg locating beneath surface, in unconscious

Question 52

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: ID
Represents
Lacks

Works on the ___ principle
___ processing

Answer 52

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: ID
Represents biological drives, instincts; “a cauldron of seething excitement”
Lacks reason, reality, morality
Wants needs met IMMEDIATELY
Works on the pleasure principle; feeling good
Primary processing – irrational, fantasy-oriented thinking
Hungry, stand up and just leave, so maybe you can daydream about food

Question 53

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: EGO

Task is to
Works on the ___ principle
Uses ___ processing

Answer 53

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: EGO
Helps ID get what it wants in a more appropriate way
Task is to understand reality and satisfy needs appropriately
Works on the reality principle
Uses secondary processing – planning and decision making

Question 54

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: SUPEREGO
Develops during ___ stage

Main function is to ___
Focus on __
Operates from the ___ principle
Example

Answer 54

FREUD’S STRUCTURAL MIND THEORY: SUPEREGO
Develops during phallic stage
Conscience internalization of parents, society, little voice in head telling you no
Main function is to prohibit
Focus on morally correct, behavior as perfectly as you can, doesn’t take reality into account
Operates from the morality principle
Example of healthy personality
Married man’s ID sexual impulses need release, man thinks of wife, ID wants to call her up and skip work, supergo would tell him no, you can’t, need to go to work, ego is mediator, go to business meeting, daydream of wife, then after work, get gifts for wife and try to romance her

Question 55

STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT: BACKGROUND INFO.
Personality develops in___ years
One body area ___ is focus of each stage
Goal in each stage is ___

Ex:
Fixation –

Answer 55

STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT: BACKGROUND INFO.
Personality develops in first five years
One body area (erogenous zone( is focus of each stage
Goal in each stage is the need to transfer libido (energy), resolve conflict
You have certain amount of energy, and you need to move it to another stage
Free expression of biological impulse vs. parental constraint
Frustration or overindulgence leads to problems
Ex: Frustrated, not getting needs met; so why would you move to the next stage?
Fixation – when portion of libido stuck in previous stage

Question 56

ORAL STAGE
when
Focus is
Infants born with ___, however,
Includes
Behaviors associated with fixation –
biting/chewing –

Answer 56

ORAL STAGE
Birth to age 2
Focus is mouth needs
Infants born with sucking reflex, however, provides infant with pleasure
Includes sucking and biting/chewing
Behaviors associated with fixation – people who like sweets, cigarette smokers; tend to be more passive and dependent on others
biting/chewing – nail biters, chew on ice, sarcastic, argumentative, independent

Question 57

ANAL STAGE
when
Associated with __
Importance of __
Behaviors associated with ___
Anal expulsive character type___
Anal retentive character type; ___

Answer 57

ANAL STAGE
Age 2-3
Associated with expelling/retaining feces
Importance of toilet training
Behaviors associated with fixation
Anal expulsive character type; room’s probably messy, unorganized, temper tantrums
Anal retentive character type; neat, organizecan be very good at saving money

Question 58

PHALLIC STAGE
age?
Origin of Greek names Oedipal and Electra
Child develops
If you don’t remember, Freud says __
Fear of punishment from same-sex parent
Boys – castration anxiety
Girls – penis envy
Resolution –
Result is development of superego, sense of conscience
Ex:
Behaviors associated with fixation –
raised by single-parent, superego is
Freud said this is how to explain homosexuality

Answer 58

PHALLIC STAGE
Age 4-5
Origin of Greek names Oedipal and Electra
King oedipus unknowingly killed parents, electra killed mom to avenge dad’s death
Child develops sexual desire for opposite sex parents
If you don’t remember, Freud says you pushed it into unconscious
Fear of punishment from same-sex parent
Boys – castration anxiety (scared dad will take away their penis because of their love for mom)
Girls – penis envy (blame mom for not having penis, propels to love her dad more)
Resolution – increased identification with same-sex parents; behave and imitate same-sex parent, so they can find an s/o like parent
Result is development of superego, sense of conscience
Ex: kids want to marry parents, like people for same characteristics as parents
Behaviors associated with fixation – promiscuous, don’t want to settle down, only self-love
raised by single-parent, superego is less strong if didn’t go through phallic stage
Freud said this is how to explain homosexuality

Question 59

LATENCY PERIOD
Not technically a stage
Energy channeled into
sexual drive doesn’t awaken again until

Answer 59

LATENCY PERIOD
Not technically a stage
Sexual drive dormant
Energy channeled into school, friendships, sports, hobbies, sexual drive doesn’t awaken again until puberty

Question 60

GENITAL STAGE
Begins at
Stage of

Answer 60

GENITAL STAGE
Begins at puberty
Stage of mature sexual love – lust, respect, care, admiration

Question 61

CARL JUNG
Relationship with Freud
Agreed everyone has individual unconscious, but also argued for
Collective unconscious –
Contents are called
Common archetypes?

Answer 61

CARL JUNG
Relationship with Freud
Started to disagree, freud ended friendship
Agreed everyone has individual unconscious, but also argued for
Collective unconscious – collective experiences humans had in evolutionary past, storehouse of ancestral experiences
Contents are called archetypes (archetype for a mother, a benevolent God)
Common archetypes
Shadow – the darkside of personality inferiorities of a person; devil on shoulder
Anima – feminine side of man; argued men are unaware of feminine side; causes men to occasionally show feminine traits, crying, tender, emotional
Animus – masculine side of woman; woman unaware; sense of independence, aggressiveness, competitiveness, sense of adventure
Persona – similar to a mask; identities we assume because of the socially prescribed roles we play

Question 62

KAREN HORNEY
Balanced role of doctor, wife, and mother
Comparison to Freud; focused more on
Psychological theory written by men relevant to women?
Feminine Psychology
maybe normal women aren’t actually jealous, jealous of
Was a reflection of the era;
Womb envy –
this is why men want to belittle them,

Answer 62

KAREN HORNEY
Balanced role of doctor, wife, and mother
Comparison to Freud; focused more on social and cultural influences on personality
Psychological theory written by men relevant to women?
Feminine Psychology
Questioned validity of penis envy
Based on interviews with neurotic women; maybe normal women aren’t actually jealous, jealous of what the penis represents, men can vote, own property, go to school
Was a reflection of the era; women aren’t jealous of men’s biology; argued men jealous of women because women can give life, give birth
Womb envy – men have such a small role to play to create life and caring for life, men feel weak and helpless, so they overcompensate for it by becoming workaholics; this is why men want to belittle them, scared that women will realize how much power they have

Question 63

EVALUATION OF PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH
Strengths

Weaknesses

Answer 63

EVALUATION OF PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH
Strengths
Rich language to help describe personality (ID, Ego, Superego)
Vast influence on modern psychology
Aware of Unconscious Mind; we’re not always understanding why we say and behave in certain ways
Comprehensive theory; talks about personality problems and development
Weaknesses
Many hypotheses are untestable (someone could lie
Sex biased (Freud in particular)
pessimistic ; we’re driven by our sexual drive, doesn’t explain altruistic behavior

Question 64

HUMANISTIC APPROACH: CARL ROGERS
Therapist and theorist
2 important aspects of personality development

Answer 64

HUMANISTIC APPROACH: CARL ROGERS
Therapist and theorist
2 important aspects of personality development
Self-actualization – person’s life long process of realizing their potential
“To be that self which one truly is”
Process of realizing your potential
Open to new experiences, more willing to try new things, risk failure and ridicule
Focus on the present, not focused on the regrets, what if’s, which doesn’t help you, worrying about future makes you miss out what’s happening right now
Let go of needing control
Believe in your intuition, trust your gut
Unconditional positive regard
You are accepted, respected, for being who you are
UPR vs. conditions of worth (child believes they’ll be loved if _)

Question 65

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

Basic needs have to be satisfied first? Maslow believed , but research says
Needs are Overlapping
5 levels of needs

Answer 65

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
Humans needs vary in their immediacy and power
Humans need hunger over S/O
Basic needs have to be satisfied first? Maslow believed yes, but research says no
Needs are Overlapping; people experience partial satisfaction of multiple needs
5 levels of needs
physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs

Question 66

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

Basic needs have to be satisfied first? Maslow believed , but research says
Needs are Overlapping
5 levels of needs

Answer 66

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
Humans needs vary in their immediacy and power
Humans need hunger over S/O
Basic needs have to be satisfied first? Maslow believed yes, but research says no
Needs are Overlapping; people experience partial satisfaction of multiple needs
5 levels of needs
physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs

Question 67

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
physiological needs –
ex
where on the pyramid

Answer 67

need to satisfy hunger and thirst
If you have normal food access, you’re not thinking about it all the time
bottom

Question 68

Maslow’s need hierarchy
safety needs –
ex
where on pyramid

Answer 68

safety needs – need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
School shootings
2nd

Question 69

Maslow’s need hierarchy
belongingness and love needs –
ex
where on pyramid

Answer 69

belongingness and love needs – need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation
Meet these needs by interaction with others, support groups
3rd

Question 70

Maslow’s need hierarchy
esteem needs –
Esteem from others –
Self-esteem –
where on pyramid

Answer 70

esteem needs – need for self-esteem, achievement, cometence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others
Esteem from others – desire for respect for other people, appreciation, status
Self-esteem – personal desire for competence, achievement

Question 71

Maslow’s need hierarchy
self-actualization needs
Maslow thinks
where on pyramid

Answer 71

Top of the Pyramid: self-actualization needs – need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential
Maslow thinks we’re so focused on the other 4 levels, we’re not even motivated by the top of the pyramid, very small minority of people are driven by it

Question 72

EVALUATION OF HUMANISTIC APPROACH
Strengths

Weaknesses

Answer 72

EVALUATION OF HUMANISTIC APPROACH
Strengths
Optimistic, positive, people intrinsically good, trying to be better humans compared to Freud’s approach on aggressive instincts
Emphasizes uniqueness and validity of subjective experience, entitled to own view
Emphasis on present and future, how you’re going to achieve goals
Active approach; dynamic; we’re always changing, growing
Weaknesses
Too naive, positive, sentimental, doesn’t explain the darkside of human nature
Theory is selfish, doesn’t talk about how you can help other people to be better
Limited in scope; only focused on certain aspects of personality, not focusing on unconscious mind

Question 73

SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Combination of
Bandura’s “triadic reciprocal determinism”:
Ex:

Answer 73

SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Combination of behavioral ideas and mental processes
Bandura’s “triadic reciprocal determinism”: environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive factors (environment affects behavior, behavior affects environment, etc.)
Ex: enjoying risk adrenaline rush activities
Internal cognitive factors (thoughts and feelings about risky activities) ←→ environmental factors (bungee-jumping friends) ←→ behavior (learning to bungee jump) ← internal cognitive factors (thoughts and feelings about risky activities)

Question 74

SELF-EFFICACY
refers to
Actual ability and self-efficacy are often
Where does self-efficacy come from?
Performance accomplishments –
Vicarious experience –
Verbal persuasion –
Level of SE based on

Answer 74

SELF-EFFICACY
refers to your belief that you can successfully perform a behavior required to achieve a goal, whether you have the time, study skills
Actual ability and self-efficacy are often independent sometimes what’s more important is the belief more than what you can actually do
Where does self-efficacy come from?
Performance accomplishments – most powerful source; when you perform a task well, it increases your belief you can perform similar task in the future or do it again
Vicarious experience – if someone similar to you does something, it makes you believe you can do it too, increase expectations, gender, age can increase or decrease
Verbal persuasion – most common source; being told by others you can succeed at something, encouraged
Level of SE based on combination of internal and external sources
when you accomplish something that’s internal, when you watch someone else succeed that’s external

Question 75

EVALUATION OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Strengths
Theory is testable because it focused on
Part of a broader viewpoint, compatible with
Weaknesses
Not comprehensive approach, focused on
Not integrated; many researchers

Answer 75

EVALUATION OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Strengths
Theory is testable becaused focused on learning, can watch people engage in certain behaviors, with mental processes you can ask them things
Part of a broader viewpoint, compatible with learning, perception, the way you make sense of the world,
Weaknesses
Not comprehensive approach, focused on specific aspects of personality like SE for example; ignoring development, change over time
Not integrated; many researchers examining different social cognitive ideas but they’re not connected in any way, different people looking at different things at different parts of the world

Question 76

EVALUATION OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Strengths
Theory is testable because it focused on
Weaknesses
Not comprehensive approach, focused on

Answer 76

EVALUATION OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
Strengths
Theory is testable because it focused on learning, can watch people engage in certain behaviors, with mental processes you can ask them things
Part of a broader viewpoint, compatible with learning, perception, the way you make sense of the world,
Weaknesses
Not comprehensive approach, focused on specific aspects of personality like SE for example; ignoring development, change over time
Not integrated; many researchers examining different social cognitive ideas but they’re not connected in any way, different people looking at different things at different parts of the world

Question 77

TRAIT APPROACH
Suggests that personality is a
Goal is explaining
Idea that
Traits are relatively
Ex:
Focusing on traits being
Ex:

Answer 77

TRAIT APPROACH
Suggests that personality is a combination of specific traits
Goal is explaining individual differences (how can we explain one’s extrovert, introvert, etc.)
Idea that no two personalities are the exact same
Traits are relatively stable within the person and across time, but may not be stable across situations
Ex: punctual teenager, probably a punctual grownup
Focusing on traits being dimensional
Ex: high extroversion and low extraversion,you can fall anywhere in the spectrum

Question 78

THE “BIG FIVE”
Basic structure of personality consists of five factors
Associated with researchers
Looked at
O
C
E
A
N

Answer 78

THE “BIG FIVE”
Basic structure of personality consists of five factors
Associated with researchers Costa and McCrae
Looked at stability overtime, cultures, etc. same traits regardless of sample
Openness to Experience
(high scores) Original thinkers, artistic, curious, tend to be very intelligent people, enjoy originality, excited about new ideas, score high on openness, insightful
Conscientiousness
Hard working, organized, responsible, highly associated with achievement motive
Extroversion
Sociable, outgoing, like large gatherings
Agreeableness
Friendly, cooperative, altruistic, get along with other people, trust other people, good natured, generous, sympathetic
Neuroticism
Emotional instability, mood all over the place and reactive

Question 79

HEXACO THEORY
Similar to
E =, X =, A =, C =, O =
H stands for
Dark triad (evil) which
Machiavellianism – tendency to
Narcissism – sense of
Psychopathy – combines
Wants what it wants when it wants (sounds like

Answer 79

HEXACO THEORY
Similar to Big 5, wit 6th trait added
E = emotionality, X = extraversion, A = agreeableness, C = conscientiousness, O = openness
H stands for honesty-humility
Dark triad (evil) which negatively correlates with H – score for honesty goes up, then your score for the dark triad goes down
Machiavellianism – tendency to manipulate others, take advantage of others, drifters
Narcissism – sense of entitlement, idea that the rules don’t apply to you, you’re special and better than other people
Psychopathy – combines impulsivity (behave without thinking of consequences and thinking it through) and lack of empathy (don’t care about other people’s needs and feelings)
Wants what it wants when it wants (sounds like Freud’s ID)

Question 80

BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
How can we tell if personality is inherited?

Family Study
(ex)
Problem is

Twin Studies – monozygotic (share vs. dizygotic twins
Compare similarity between MZ and DZ twins

Same problem of

Adoption studies
Compare

Is personality heritable?
More evidence suggests

Answer 80

BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
How can we tell if personality is inherited?
compare the degree of difference among subjects to their degree of genetic relatedness
Family Study
Study individual and first degree relatives (parents, siblings, kids)
If individual is similar to relatives, it’s possible trait is genetic
While it suggests it’s genetic you cannot prove it; parents could’ve taught you to be (ex) conscientious through observational learning
Problem is separating genes from the environment, modeling, learning, reinforcement
Twin Studies – monozygotic (share 100% of genes, identical) vs. dizygotic twins (2 eggs released, 2 sperm, only share same amount of genes as regular siblings, 50%, fraternal)
Compare similarity between MZ and DZ twins
One set of twins has more similar scores on the Big 5 than the other set of twins
If MZ twins are more similar, it’s possible trait is genetic
Same problem of separating genes from the environment
Adoption studies
Compare adopted child to both biological parent and adopted parent
If child more similar to biological parent compared to adopted parent, it’s possible trait is genetic
Is personality heritable?
More evidence suggests traits do have heritable component

Question 81

EVALUATION OF TRAIT APPROACH
Strengths
Focuses on
Weaknesses
Underestimates the importance of

Answer 81

EVALUATION OF TRAIT APPROACH
Strengths
Focuses on stability of personality overtime
Development of objective measures of personality
Good empirical support, can study different ages, cultures, places
Weaknesses
Underestimates the importance of situational factors (spectrum of personality traits, sometimes extroverted, sometimes not) can’t predict
Description not explanation; how does personality develop?

Question 82

ASSESSING PERSONALITY
Projectives – method from
Refers to a
Example of

Answer 82

ASSESSING PERSONALITY
Projectives – method from psychodynamic approach (freud, others)
Refers to a standard set of vague stimuli
Client supposed to project himself onto the stimuli; their response about what you see or explanation, must be coming from themselves and personality
Example of Rorschach or Thematic Apperception Test

Question 83

RORSCHACH
Describe
Reveals
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST

PROJECTIVES
Strengths
Allows clients
Taps into
Weaknesses

Answer 83

RORSCHACH
Developed in 1921
Describe what inkblot card reminds you of
10 separate cards
Reveals something about overall personality because the card is meaningless and ambiguous
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
Developed in 1935
31 picture cards, subject needs to create story about main character(s)
Used to identify drives, emotions, and conflicts
PROJECTIVES
Strengths
Allows clients great freedom in expressing themselves
Taps into unconscious mind
Weaknesses
Poor validity, so-so reliability; may have different profiles few months from now
expensive, not necessarily better

Question 84

MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI-2)
Most widely used personality test
Contains over
Items cover
Has clinical scales and validity scales –
Good

Answer 84

MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI-2)
Most widely used personality test
Contains over 500 T/F Statements
Items cover physical and psychological health, social attitudes, occupational and family factors, etc.
Has clinical scales and validity scales – see if person is honest, taking time to answer correctly, can catch people who are faking
Good reliability and validity
TABLE 11.6 simulated MPI-2 Items
Table 11.5 the major personality perspectives