module 4-8 key terms Flashcards
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
overconfidence
our confidence in our knowledge is greater than our objective accuracy
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
hypothesis
a testable prediction often implied by a theory
null hypothesis
a statement of no difference (a testable prediction often implied by a theory)
alternate hypothesis
a statement of difference (a testable prediction often implied by a theory)
operational definitions
a statement to describe the procedures used to define/measure the research variables (DV and IV) of a study
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding extends to other people and circumstances
naturalistic observation
a research method that involves the systematic observation of an organism in a natural setting
case study
a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon
survey
a method of collecting self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative or random sample of people
wording effects
the effect that subtle changes in the words or in the order of words can have on a study participant
sampling bias
situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population
population
the entire group to be studied
random sample
the representative group being surveyed (where every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected)
stratified sample
where subgroups in the population are represented proportionally
correlation
a measure of the relationship between two factors which allows us to use one factor to predict the other
correlation coefficient (r-value)
the mathematical expression of that relationship ranging from -1 to +1
scatterplot
a graph of plotted data points that show the relationship between two variables
positive correlation
when the values of the variables tend to rise and fall together
negative correlation
when as the values of one variable goes up, the other tends to go down
illusory correlation
a perceived nonexistent relationship
experiment
a research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects
experimental group
the group that receives the treatment
control group
the group that does not receive the treatment, but is the same in every other way
random assignment
assigning participants randomly to the experimental and control groups to minimize differences between the groups
single blind procedure
where participants do not know which treatment group (experimental or control) they are in
double blind procedure
where both the participants and the experimenter do not know which treatment groups (experimental or control) the subjects are in
placebo effect
experimental groups caused by expectation alone
independent variable
the variable or factor that is manipulated by the experimenter (cause)
dependent variable
the variable being measured by the researcher (effect)
confounding variable
factors (other than the IV) that influence the DV; may result from poor planning, sloppy work, bias, etc)
validity
the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure
descriptive statistics
numbers that summarize a set of research data attained in a sample; summary
inferential statistics
where one draws conclusions about given data
statistical significance
helps quantify whether a result is due to chance or some factor or interest
discrete variable
obtained by measuring or counting
dichotomy
a division/contrast between two things that are represented as being entirely different
trichotomy
a division into three catergories
continuous variable
obtained by measuring and counting; can take on an unlimited number of values
continuum
a continuous sequence where elements are not perceptibly different from each other except at the extremes
measures of central tendency
identifies what is average or typical in a data set
mode
the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
bimodal/multimodal
data sets with more than one mode
median
the middle score in a rank-ordered distribution
mean
the average score in a distribution
measures of variability
measures distribution of data
range
subtract the lowest score from the highest to determine the gap between scores
standard deviation
a measure of the dispersion of scores around the mean
distribution
describes how values are distributed
histogram
shows the frequency of numerical data using rectangles
normal curve
continuous probability distribution that is symmetrical on both sides of the mean
skew
the distortion or asymmetry that deviates from normal distribution
outlier
an observation that lies an abnormal distance from other values
informed consent
the process by which researchers working with human participants describe their project and obtain subjects’ consent to participate
debriefing
a set of procedures including counseling and the giving of information aimed at preventing psychological morbidity and aiding recovery after a traumatic event
