Module 4-7 Flashcards
social stratification
the existence of structured inequalities among groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards
slavery
a form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property
caste system
a social system in which one’s social status is determined at birth and set for life
endogamy
the forbidding of marriage or sexual relations outside of one’s social group
class
although it is one of the most frequently used concepts in sociology, there is no clear agreement about how the term should be defined. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic variations among groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power
life chances
a term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person’s opportunities for achieving economic prosperity
means of production
the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations among producers
bourgeoise
people who own companies, land, or stocks (shares) and use these to generate economic returns according to Marx
proletariat
people who sell their labor for wages, according to Marx
surplus value
in Marxist theory, the value of a worker’s labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker
status
The social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. Status groups normally display distinct styles of life—patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. Status privilege may be positive or negative
pariah group
groups that suffer from negative status discrimination - they are looked down on by most other members of society
power
the ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice
contradictory class locations
positions in the class structure, particularly routine white collar, and lower managerial jobs, that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them
income
payment, usually derived from wages, salaries, or investments
wealth
money and material possessions held by an individual or group
upper class
a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks
middle class
a social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and highly skilled blue-collar jobs
working class
a social class broadly composed of people working in blue collar or manual occupations
blue and pink collar jobs
jobs that typically pay low wages and often involve manual or low-skill labor. Blue-collar jobs typically are held by men (e.g. factory workers) whereas pink-collar jobs are typically held by women (e.g. clerical assistant)
lower class
a social class composed of those who work part-time or not at all and whose household income is typically low
social mobility
upward or downward movement of individuals or groups among different social positions
intragenerational mobility
movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career
intergenerational mobility
change in social class between generations
social reproduction
the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children
cultural capital
noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge. These resources contribute to the process of social reproduction, according to Bourdieu
downward mobility
social mobility in which individuals’ wealth, income, or status is lower than what they or their parents once had
short-range downward mobility
social mobility that occurs when an individual moves from one position in the class structure to another of neatly equal status
absolute poverty
the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence
relative poverty
poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority of an given society
poverty line
a family-income level based on a no-frills budget that should suffice to cover all necessary expenses
working poor
people who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line
feminization of poverty
an increase in the proportion of the poor who are female
social security
a government program that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or old age
medicare
a program under the US Social Security Administration that reimburses hospitals and physicians for medical care provided to qualifying people over sixty-five years old
culture of poverty
a thesis popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not the result of individual inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The culture of poverty refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation
dependency culture
a term popularized by Charles Murray to describe individuals who rely on state welfare provision rather than entering the labor market. The dependency culture is seen as the outcome of the “paternalistic” welfare state that undermines individual ambition and people’s capacity for self-help
social exclusion
the outcome of multiple deprivations that prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live
agency
the ability to think, act, and make choices independently
homeless
people who have no place to sleep and either stay in free shelters or sleep in public spaces not meant for habitation
globalization
connectivity between local and global outcomes and processes
global inequality
the systematic differences in wealth and power among countries that have resulted from globalization
emerging economies
developing countries that, over the past two or three decades, have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong
neoliberalism
the belief that the best possible economic consequences will result if individuals and businesses—consumers and producers—are entirely free, uninhibited by any form of governmental constraint, to make their own economic decisions in a free market.
modernization theory
a version of market-oriented development theory that argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment
dependency theory
marxist theories of economic development arguing that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and the multinational corporations that are based in wealthy countries
core countries
According to dependency theory, the most advanced industrial countries are best understood as being core within the world economy, in that they extract the lion’s share of profits from weaker countries
periphery
the low-income, largely agricultural countries. countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships
colonialism
the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories
dependent development
that under certain circumstances, dependent countries can still develop economically, although only in ways shaped by their reliance on wealthier countries
global commodity chains
worldwide networks of labor and production processes yielding a finished product
semi periphery countries
countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies
world-systems theory
sees the world capitalist economic system not merely as a collection of independent countries engaged in diplomatic and economic relations with one another, but rather as a single economic unit
theory of global capitalism
the current transnational phase of capitalism, characterized by global markets, production, and finances; a transnational capitalist class whose business concerns are global rather than national; and transnational systems of governance (such as the World Trade Organization) that promote global business interests
transnational capitalist class
a social class whose economic interests are global rather than national, who share a globalized perspective and similar lifestyle and who see themselves as cosmopolitan citizens of the world
homeschooling
the practice of parents or guardians educating their children at home, for religious, philosophical, or safety reasons
literacy
the ability to read and write
tracking
dividing students into groups that receive different instruction based on perceived similarities in ability
hidden curriculum
traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at the school but not included within the formal curriculum, for example, gender differences
IQ
a score attained on tests of symbolic or reasoning abilities
functional literacy
having reading and writing skills that are beyond a basic level and are sufficient to manage one’s everyday activities and employment tasks
standardized testing
a procedure whereby all students in a state take the same test under the same conditions
religion
a set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual practices. Religions do not universally involve a belief in supernatural entities
theism
a belief in one or more supernatural dieties
alienation
the sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Karl Marx to refer to the projection of human powers into gods. Subsequently, he used the term to refer to the loss of workers’ control over the nature and products of their labor
sacred
that which inspires awe or reverence among those who believe in a given set of religious ideas
profane
that which belongs to the mundane, everyday world
secular thinking
worldly thinking, particularly as seen in the rise of science, technology, and rational thought in general
secularization
a process of decline in the influence of religion. Secularization can refer to levels of involvement with religious organizations (such as rates of church attendance), the social and material influence wielded by religious organizations, and the degree to which people hold religious beliefs
religious economy
a theoretical framework within the sociology of religion that argues that religions can be fruitfully understood as organizations in competition with one another for follower
churches
are large, established religious bodies
sect
is typically described as a religious subgroup that breaks away from the larger organization and consequently follows its own unique set of rules and principles
denomination
is a sect that has cooled down and become an institutionalized body rather than an activist protest group
cult
are the most loosely knit and transient of all religious organizations. They are composed of individuals who reject what they see as the values of the outside society
religious nationalism
the linking of strongly held religious convictions with beliefs about a people’s social and political destiny
intersectionality
a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from a single group membership. For example, the experience of a black female may be distinct from that of a white female or black male
gender
social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Gender refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men and women but to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity
gender binary
the classification of sex and gender into two discrete, opposite, and nonoverlapping forms of masculine and feminine
nonbinary
a gender identity that does not fit squarely into the male-female gender binary classification
gender socialization
the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, peers, the media, and family
social construction of gender
a perspective holding that gender differences are a product of social and cultural norms and expectations rather than biology
hegemonic masculinity
social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant, and unemotional
transgender
a person who identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from their sex at birth. Transgender persons differ from nonbinary persons who may have a fluid identity that shifts between male and female or who may identify as neither male nor female
cisgender
refers to a person whose gender identity matches their biological sex, for example, a person born male who identifies as a man
intersex
an individual possessing both male and female genitalia. Although statistically rare, this subpopulation is of great interest to gender scholars
patriarchy
the dominance of and privilege afforded to men over women. All known societies are patriarchal, although there are variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise and are bestowed relative to women
gender inequality
the inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status
gender typing
designation of occupations as male or female, with “women’s” occupations, such as secretarial and retail positions, having lower status and pay and “men’s” occupations, such as managerial and professional positions, having higher status and pay
sex segregation
the concentration of men and women in different jobs. These differences are believed to contribute to the gender pay gap
glass ceiling
a promotion barrier that prevents a woman’s upward mobility within an organization
sexual harassment
the making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, in which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant
second shift
the excessive work hours borne by women relative to men; these hours are typically spent on domestic chores following the end of a day of work outside the home
housework
unpaid work carried on in the home, usually by women; domestic chores such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping. Also called “domestic labor”
infanticide
the intentional killing of a newborn. Female babies are more likely than male babies to be murdered in cultures that devalue women
rape
the forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse
rape culture
social context in which attitudes and norms perpetuate the treatment of women as sexual objects and instill in men a sense of sexual entitlement
toxic masculinity
a cluster of potentially destructive values or behaviors that historically have been part of boys’ socialization, such as the devaluation of and aggression toward women
feminist theory
a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experiences of women. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the intention of explaining gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them
liberal feminism
form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequity is produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and employment, based on sex. Liberal feminists tend to seek solutions through changes in legislation that ensure that the rights of individuals are protected
radical feminism
form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life
black feminism
a strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women. Black feminists reject the idea of a single, unified gender oppression that is experienced evenly by all women and argue that early feminist analysis reflected the specific concerns of white, middle class women
suffragettes
members of early women’s movements who pressed for equal voting rights for women and men
transnational feminism
a branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes - including colonialism, racism, and imperialism - shape gender relations and hierarchies
race
differences in human physical characteristics used to categorize large numbers of individuals
theory of racial formation
the process by which social, economic, and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories.
ethnicity
cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others. An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups
minority group
a group of people who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality within that society.
dominant group
a group possessing more wealth, power, and prestige) and have some sense of group solidarity, of belonging together
prejudice
the holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice may be either positive or negative.
racism
the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics.
stereotype
a fixed and inflexible category
displacement
the transferring of ideas or emotions from their true source to another object
scapegoats
individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing
discrimination
behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others. Discrimination must be distinguished from prejudice: Individuals who are prejudiced against others may not engage in discriminatory practices; conversely, people may act in a discriminatory fashion toward a group even though they are not prejudiced against that group
immigration
the movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement
emmigration
the process by which people leave a country to settle in another, combine to produce global migration patterns linking countries of origin and countries of destination
scientific racism
the misuse of science to support racist assumptions
genocide
the systematic, planned destruction of a racial, ethnic, religious, political, or cultural group.
segregation
the practices of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate
assimilation
The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture
melting pot
the idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources
multiculturalism
the viewpoint according to which ethnic groups can exist separately and share equally in economic and political life. pluralism A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in a society retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship
pluralism
ethnic cultures maintain their unique practices and communities yet also participate in the larger society’s economic and political life
institutional racism
patterns of discrimination based on ethnicity that have become structured into existing social institutions
white privilege
the unacknowledged and unearned assets that benefit whites in their everyday lives.
racial microagressions
small slights, indignities, or acts of disrespect that are hurtful to people of color even though they are often perpetuated by well-meaning whites
refugees
people who have fled their homes due to political, economic, or natural crisis
racialization
the process by which understandings of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people
mores
norms that are widely adhered to and have great moral or social significance. Violations are generally sanctioned strongly
folkway
norms that guide casual or everyday interactions. Violations are sanctioned subtly or not at all
deviance
modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society who can enforce their definitions. What is regarded as deviant is as variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures from one another
deviant subculture
a subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority
crime
any actions that contravene the laws established by a political authority
sanction
a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior
laws
rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power
psychopath
a specific personality type; such individuals lack the moral sense and concern for others held by most normal people
anomie
a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Emile Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior
relative deprivation
the recognition that one has less than his or her peers
differential association
an interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime
labeling theory
an approach to the study of deviance that suggests that people become “deviant” because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others
primary deviance
according to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant
secondary deviance
according to Edwin Lemert, following the act of primary deviance, secondary deviation occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly
uniform crime reports(ucr)
documents that contain official data on crime that is reported to law enforcement agencies that then provide the data to the FBI
hate crime
a criminal act by an offender who is motivated by some bias, such as racism, sexism, or homophobia
white collar crimes
criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar or professional jobs
corporate crime
offenses committed by large corporations in society, including pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations
organized crime
criminal activities carried about by organizations established as businesses
broken window theory
a theory proposing that even small acts of crime, disorder, and vandalism can threaten a neighborhood and render it unsafe
conurbanization
a cluster of towns or cities forming an unbroken urban environment
megalopolis
the “city of all cities” in ancient Greece-used in modern times to refer to very large conurbations.
urbanization
the movement of the population into towns and cities and away from the land
ecological approach
a perspective on urban analysis emphasizing the “natural” distribution of city neighborhoods into areas having contrasting characteristics
urban ecology
an approach to the study of urban life based on an analogy with the adjustment of plants and organisms to the physical environment. According to ecological theorists, the various neighborhoods and zones within cities are formed as a result of natural processes of adjustment on the part of populations as they compete for resources.
urbanism
a term used by Louis Wirth to denote distinctive characteristics of urban social life, such as its impersonal or alienating nature
created environment
constructions established by human beings to serve their own needs, including roads, railways, factories, offices, homes, and other buildings.
informal economy
economic transactions carried on outside the sphere of formal paid employment
gentrification
a process of urban renewal in which older, deteriorated housing is refurbished by affluent people moving into the area
global city
Sociologist Saskia Sassen coined the term to refer to urban centers that are home to the headquarters of large transnational corporations and a superabundance of financial, technological, and consulting services
urban renewal
the process of renovating deteriorating neighborhoods by encouraging the renewal of old buildings and the construction of new ones
demography
the study of the size, distribution, and composition of populations
crude brithrate
a statistical measure representing the number of births within a given population per year, normally calculated as the number of births per 1,000 members. Although the crude birthrate is a useful index, it is only a general measure, because it does not specify numbers of births in relation to age distribution.
infant mortality rate
the number of infants who die during the first year of life, per 1,000 live births
age-specific brithrates
They are called “crude” rates because they do not focus on women of childbearing age, which is a much better predictor of population growth. Age-specific birthrates take into account such differences: for instance, the number of births per 1,000 women in the 25- to 34-year-old age group.
fertility
the average number of live-born children produced by women of childbearing age in a particular society.
crude death rate
a statistical measure representing the number of deaths that occur annually in a given population per year, normally calculated as the number of deaths per 1,000 members. Crude death rates give a general indication of the mortality levels of a community or society but are limited in their usefulness because they do not consider the age distribution
mortality
the number of deaths in a population
life span
the maximum length of life that is biologically possible for a member of a given species.
life expectancy
the number of years the average person can expect to live.
doubling time
the time it takes for a particular level of population to double.
rates of population growth and decline
a measure of population change calculated by subtracting the yearly number of deaths per 1,000 from the number of births per 1,000.
exponential growth
a geometric, rather than linear, rate of increase. Populations tend to grow exponentially.
malthusainism
a doctrine about population dynamics developed by Thomas Malthus, according to which population increase comes up against “natural limits,” represented by famine and war.
demographic transition
the changes in the ratio of births to deaths in the industrialized countries from the nineteenth century onward.
dependency ratio
the ratio of people of dependent ages (children and the elderly) to people of economically active ages.
sustainable development
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
anthropocene
(“human epoch”) to characterize the current geological period, a time when human activities have become the main agent of change in our planetary ecosystem
economy
consists of the system of production and exchange that provides for the material needs of individuals living in a particular society
authority
a government’s legitimate use of power
state
a political apparatus (governmental institutions plus civil service officials) ruling over a given territorial order whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force
sovereignty
the undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial area
nation-state
a particular type of state, characteristics of the modern world, in which a government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area and the population comprises citizens who believe themselves to be part of a single nation or people
citizens
members of a political community, having both rights and duties associated with that membership
nationalism
a set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community
local nationalism
the beliefs that communities that share a cultural identity should have political autonomy, even within smaller units of a nation-state
civil liberties
refer to the rights of the individual as established by law
political rights
rights of political participation, such as the right to vote in elections and to run for office, held by citizens of a national community
welfare state
a political system that provides a wide range of welfare benefits for its citizens
social rights
rights off social and welfare provision held by all citizens in a national community
democracy
a political system that allows the citizens to participate in political decision making or to elect representatives to government bodies
participatory democracy
a system of democracy in which all members of a group or community participate collectively in making major decisions
direct democracy
a form of participatory democracy that allows citizens to vote directly on laws and policies
constitutional monarchs
kings or queens who are largely figureheads. Real power rests in the hands of other political leaders
liberal democracies
representative democracies in which elected representatives hold power
communism
a set of political ideas associated with Marx, as developed particularly by Lenin and institutionalized in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and some developing countries
populism
the belief that politics should reflect the needs and interests of ordinary people rather than those of elite individuals or groups
authoritarianism
a political system in which the governing bodies or leaders use force to maintain control
interest group
a group organized to pursue specific interests in the political arena, operating primarily by lobbying the members of legislative bodies
democratic elitism
a theory of the limits of democracy, which holds that in large-scale societies democratic participation is necessarily limited to the regular election of political leaders
pluralist theory of modern democracy
theories that emphasize the role of diverse and potentially competing interest groups, none of which dominate the political process
power elite
small networks of individuals who, according to C. Wright Mills, hold concentrated power in modern societies
work
refers to the activity by which people produce from the natural world and so ensure their survival
occupation
is any form of paid employment in which an individual regularly works
technology
the application of knowledge of the material world to production; the creation of material instruments (such as machines) used in human interaction with nature
division of labor
the specialization of work tasks, by means of which different occupations are combined within a production system. All societies have at least some rudimentary form of division of labor, especially between the tasks allocated to men and those performed by women
economic interdependence
the fact that in the division of labor, individuals depend on others to produce many or most of the goods they need to sustain their lives
alienation
the sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Karl Marx to refer to the projection of human powers into gods. Subsequently, he used the term to refer to the loss of workers’ control over the nature and products of their labor
strike
a temporary stoppage of work by a group of employees in order to express a grievance or enforce a demand
unions
organizations that advance and protect interests of workers with respect to working conditions, wages, and benefits
capitalism
an economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested to produce profit
collective bargaining
the rights of employees and workers to negotiate with their employers for basic rights and benefits
corporations
business firms or companies
entrepreneur
the owner or founder of a business firm
oligopoly
the domination by a small number of firms in a given industry
monopoly
a situation in which a single firm dominates in a given industry
family capitalism
capitalistic enterprise owned and administered by entrepreneurial families
managerial capitalism
capitalistic enterprises administered by managerial executives rather than by owners
welfare capitalism
practice in which large corporations protect their employees from the vicissitudes of the market
institutional capitalism
capitalistic enterprise organized on the basis of institutional shareholding
interlocking directories
linkages among corporations created by individuals who sit on two or more corporate boards
global capitalism
the current transnational phase of capitalism, characterized by global markets, production, and finances; a transnational capitalist class whose business concerns are global rather than national; and transnational systems of governance (such as the World Trade Organization) that promote global business interests
transnational corporation
business corporations located in two or more countries
knowledge economy
a society no longer based primarily on the production of material goods but based instead on the production of knowledge. Its emergence has been linked to the development of a broad base of consumers who are technologically literate and have made new advances in computing, entertainment, and telecommunications part of their lives
automation
production processes monitored and controlled by machines with only minimal supervision from people
unemployment rates
the proportion of the population sixteen and older that is actively seeking work but is unable to find employment
social change
a measure of how social life have changed over time
post-industrial society
a society based on the production of knowledge and information rather than material goods, resulting in the rise of an economic service sector and the decline of the manufacturing sector
structural strain
tensions that produce conflicting interests within societies
social movements
large groups of people who seek to accomplish, or to block, a process of social change. Social movements normally exist in conflict with organizations whose objectives and outlook they oppose. However, movements that successfully challenge power can develop into organizations
terrorism
a public act of violence meant to be intimidating
civil society
the sphere of activity that lies between the state and the marketplace, including the family, schools, community associations, and other noneconomic institutions. Civil society, or civic culture, is essential to vibrant democratic societies
cultural imperialism
when the values, styles, and outlooks of the world are being spread so aggressively that they smother individual national cultures
hybridization
the process by which new forms of hybrid identity are created out of elements from contrasting cultural sources
external risks
dangers that spring from the natural world and are unrelated to the actions of humans. Examples include droughts, earthquakes, famines, and storms
manufactured risks
dangers that are created by the impact of human knowledge and technology on the natural world. Examples include global warming and genetically modified foods
ritualist
conform to socially accepted standards, although they have lost sight of the values behind these standards. They follow rules for their own sake, in a compulsive way, without a broader end in view
retreatist
have abandoned the competitive outlook altogether, thus rejecting both the dominant values and the approved means of achieving them. An example would be the members of a self-supporting commune
rebels
reject both the existing values and the means of pursuing them but wish actively to substitute new values and reconstruct the social system. The members of radical political and religious groups, such as the Heaven’s Gate cult, fall into this category
innovators
accept socially approved values but use illegitimate or illegal means to follow them. Criminals who acquire wealth through illegal activities exemplify this type.
conformist
accept both societal values and the conventional means of realizing them, regardless of whether they meet with success. The majority of the population falls into this category
collective consumption
Castells argues that people are often driven by consumption choices, and therefore local amenities like schools and stores, as well as opportunities for leisure, drive individual decisions.
Castells argues that it is not only businesses and governments that spur urban change, but also social movements that cohere around advocating for better amenities, safer neighborhoods, and other local concerns
urban restructuring
Harvey argues that business interests, as well as government programs that influence business decisions, play a large role in shaping how cities develop.
Harvey argues that individuals make decisions on where to live based largely on the kinds of economic opportunities available in neighborhoods.
race to the bottom
According to Bonacich and Appelbaum, outsourcing, or the practice of manufacturing goods in a number of other countries, is routinely used by corporations as a way to get around stringent regulations in their own countries. By outsourcing the production process, they can pay less for workers, manufacturing materials, and cleanup procedures.
