Module 1-3(Sociology) Flashcards
sociological imagination
the ability to think imaginatively and to link personal troubles to public issues
structuation
the two way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society
globalization
connectivity between local and global outcomes and processes
social facts
according to Émile Durkheim, the aspect of social life that shape our actions as individuals. Durkheim believed that social facts could be studied scientifically
organic solidarity
the social cohesion among various parts of society
social constraints
the limitations placed on our behavior by the groups and social context to which we belong
materialist conception of history
the notion that economy, not values, culture, or ideas, is the locomotive of social change
symbolic interactionism
a theoretical approach in sociology developed by George Herbert Mead that emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interactions
functionalism
a theoretical perspective base on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform, that is, the contributions they make to the continuity of a society
symbol
one item used to stand for or represent another–as in the case of a flag, which symbolizes a nation
manifest functions
the functions of a particular social activity that are known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity
latent functions
the functions of a particular social activity that are unintended or of which individuals involved in the activity are unaware
conflict theories
sociological perspectives that emphasize the role of political and economic power and oppression as contributing to the existing social order
Marxism
a body of thought deriving its main elements from Karl Marx’s ideas
power
the ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice
ideology
shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the interests of dominant groups. Ideologies are found in all societies in which there are systematic and ingrained inequalities among groups. The concept of ideology connects closely with that of power.
feminism
advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life
feminist theory
a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experiences of women. There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the intention of explaining gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them
postmodernism
the belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress. Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse, with no “grand narrative” guiding its development
micro sociology
the study of everyday behavior in situations of face-to-face interaction
macro sociology
the analysis of large-scale social systems, like the political system or the economy
science
the disciplined marshaling of empirical data, combined with theoretical approaches and theories that illuminate or explain those data
empirical investigation
factual inquiry carried out in any area of sociological study
factual questions
questions that raise issues concerning matters of fact (rather than theoretical or moral issues)
comparative questions
questions that sociologists pose that are concerned with drawing comparisons among different human societies
developmental questions
questions that sociologists pose when looking at the origins and path of development of social institutions
theoretical questions
questions posed by sociologists when seeking to explain a particular range of observed events. The asking of theoretical questions is crucial to allowing us to generalize about the nature of social life
hypothesis
an idea or a guess about a given state of affairs, put forward as a basis for empirical testing
data
factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation. Social science data often refer to individuals’ responses to survey questions
qualitative methods
approaches to sociological research that often rely on personal and/or collective interviews, accounts, or observations of a person or situation
quantitative methods
approaches to sociological research that draw on objective and statistical data and often focus on documenting trends, comparing subgroups, or exploring correlations
ethnography
the firsthand study of people using observation, in-depth interviewing, or both. Also called “fieldwork”
participant observation
a method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied
survey
a method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied
pilot study
a trial run in survey research
sampling
studying a proportion of individuals as representative of that populations as a whole
sample
a small proportion of a larger population
representative sample
a sample from a larger populations that is statistically typical of that populations
random sampling
sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the populations has the same probability of being included
experiment
a research method in which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and system way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring settings
comparative research
research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same types of finding on other societies
oral history
interviews with people about events they witnessed earlier in their lives
triangulation
the use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical date than would be available from any single method
measure of central tendency
ways of calculating averages
correlation coefficient
a measure of the degree of correlation between variables
mean
a statistical measure of central tendency, or average, based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases
mode
the number that appears most often in a dataset
median
the number that falls halfway in a range of numbers
standard deviation
a way of calculating the spread of a group of figures
informed consent
the process whereby the investigator informs potential participants about the risk and benefits in the study
debriefing
following a study, the process whereby an investigator informs participants about the true purpose of the study and reveals any deception that happened during the study
degree of dispersal
the range or distribution of a set of figures
rationalization
a concept used by Max Weber to refer to the process by which modes of precise calculation and organization, involving abstract rules and procedures, increasingly come to dominate the social world
personal troubles
difficulties that are located in individual biographies and their immediate milieu; seemingly private experiences.
public issues
difficulties or problems that are linked to the institutional and historical possibilities of social structure
capitalism
an economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested to produce profit
anomie
a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Emile Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior
cultural appropriation
when members of one cultural group borrow elements of another groups cultures
culture
the set of symbols, identities, beliefs, value, materials, and strategies people employ in their daily lives
values
abstract ideals held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad, What individuals value is strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live
norms
rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations. A norm either prescribes a given type of behavior or forbids it. All human groups follow norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another - varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment
language
a system if symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts; the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society
linguistic relativity hypothesis
a hypothesis, based on the theories of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language; also referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
material culture
the physical objects that society creates that influence the ways in which people live
signifier
any vehicle of meaning and communication
society
a system of interrelationships that connects individuals together. These individuals are subject to a common system of political authority and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups.
sociobiology
an approach that attempts to explain the behavior of both animals and human beings in terms of biological principals
instinct
fixed patterns of behavior that have genetic origins and that appears in all normal animals within a given species
biological determinism
the belief that differences we observe between groups of people, such as men and women, are explained wholly by biological causes
subcultures
cultural groups within a wider society that hold values and norms distinct from those of the majority
countercultures
cultural groups within a wider society that largely reject the values and norms of the majority
assimilation
The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture
multiculturalism
the viewpoint according to which ethnic groups can exist separately and share equally in economic and political life. pluralism A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in a society retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship
ethnocentrism
the practice of judging other cultures by applying standards from their own cultures
cultural relativism
the practice of judging a society by its own standards
cultural universals
values and modes of behavior shared by all human cultures
marriage
a socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals. Marriage normally forms the basis of a family of procreation; that is, it is expected that the married couple will produce and raise children
pastoral societies
societies whose subsistence derives from the rearing of domesticated animals
agrarian societies
societies whose means of subsistence are based on agricultural production (crop growing)
industrialization
the emergence of machine production based on the use of inanimate power resources (such as stream of electricity)
industrialized societies
highly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population works in factories or offices rather than in agriculture and in which most people live in urban areas
nation-state
a particular type of state, characteristics of the modern world, in which a government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area and the population comprises citizens who believe themselves to be part of a single nation or people
colonialism
the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories
developing world
the less-developed societies, in which industrial production is either virtually nonexistent or only developed to a limited degree. The majority of the world’s population lives in less-developed countries
emerging economies
developing countries that, over the past two or three decades, have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong
nationalism
a set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community
socialization
the social processes through which we develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self
social reproduction
the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children
resocialization
the process of learning new norms, values, and behaviors when one joins a new group or takes on a new social role or when one’s life circumstances change dramatically
desocialization
the process whereby people unlearn rules and norms upon exiting a particular social world
cognition
human thought processes involving perception, reasoning, and remembering
social self
according to the theory of George Herbert Mead, the identity conferred upon an individual by the reactions of others. A person achieves self-consciousness by becoming aware of this social identity
self-consciousness
the ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity through which we formulate a unique sense of ourselves and our relationship to the world around us
generalized other
a concept in the theory of George Herbert Mead, according to which the individual takes over the general values of a given group or society during the socialization process
looking-glass self
a theory developed by Charles Horton Cooley that proposes that the reactions we elicit in social situations create a mirror in which we see ourselves
sensorimotor stage
according to John Piaget, the first stage of human cognitive development, in which a child’s awareness of his or her environment is dominated by perception and touch
pre operational stage
according to John Piaget, the second stage of human cognitive development in which a child has advanced sufficiently to master basic modes of logical thought
egocentric
eccording to John Piaget, the characteristic quality of a child during the early years of life. Egocentric thinking involves understanding objects and events in the environment solely in terms of the child’s own position
concrete operation stage
the stage of human cognitive development, as formulated by John Piaget, in which the child’s thinking is based primarily on physical perception of the world. In this phase, the child is not yet capable of dealing with abstract concepts or hypothetical situations
formal operational stage
according to John Piaget, the stage of human cognitive development at which the growing child becomes capable of handling abstract concepts and hypothetical situations
agents of socialization
groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place
nuclear family
a family group consisting of an adult or adult couple and their dependent children
hidden curriculum
traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at the school but not included within the formal curriculum, for example, gender differences
peer group
a friendship group composed of individuals of a similar age and social status
social roles
socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status or occupying a particular social position. In every society, individuals play a number of social roles, such as teenager, parent, worker, or political leader
social identity
the characteristic that other people attribute to an individual
self identity
awareness of one’s distinct social identity as a person separate from others. Human beings are not born with self-consciousness but acquire an awareness of self as a result of early socialization
gender socialization
the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, peers, the media, and family
race socialization
the specific verbal and nonverbal messages that older generations transmit to younger generations regarding the meaning and significance of race
life course
the various transitions and stages people experience during their lives
aging
the combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affects people as they grow older
social gerontologists
social scientists who study older adults and life course influences on aging processes
disengagement theory
a functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become elderly, thereby freeing up those roles for others
activity theory
a functionalist theory of aging that maintains that busy, engaged people are more likely to lead fulfilling and productive lives
continuity theory
theoretical perspective on aging that specifies that older adults fare best when they participate in activities consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities from earlier in life
conflict theories of aging
arguments that emphasize the ways in which the larger social structure helps to shape the opportunities available to older adults. Unequal opportunities are seen as creating the potential for conflict
young old
sociological term for persons between the ages of sixty-five and seventy-four
old old
sociological term for persons between the ages of seventy-five and eighty-four
oldest old
sociological term for persons age eighty-five and older
ageism
discrimination or prejudice against a person on the basis of age
social interaction
The process by which we act with and react to those around us
civil inattention
the process whereby individuals in the same physical setting demonstrate to each other that they are aware of the other’s presence
agency
the ability to think, act, and make choices independently
structure
the recurrent patterned arrangements and hierarchies that influence or limit the choices and opportunities available to us
unfocused interaction
interaction occurring among people present in a particular setting but not engaged in direct face-to-face communication
focused interaction
interaction between individuals engaged in a common activity or in direct conversation with each other
encounter
a meeting between two or more people in a situation of face-to-face interaction. Our daily lives can be seen as a series of different encounters strung out across the course of the day. In modern societies, many of these encounters are withs strangers rather than people we know
nonverbal communication
communication between individuals based on facial expressions or bodily gestures rather than on language
status
The social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. Status groups normally display distinct styles of life—patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. Status privilege may be positive or negative
social position
The social identity an individual has in a given group or society. Social positions may be general in nature (those associated with gender roles) or may be more specific (occupational positions)
impression management
Preparing for the presentation of one’s social role
ethnomethodology
the study of how people make sense of what others say and do in the course of day-to-day social interaction. Ethnomethodology is concerned with the “ethnomethods” by which people sustain meaningful exchanges with one another
interactional vandalism
is a concept in sociology that describes a situation where the implied rules of conversation are not adhered to, specifically when a person of lower social status violates those rules when interacting with a person of higher social status.
response cries
seemingly involuntary exclamations individuals make when, for example, being taken by surprise, dropping something inadvertently, or expressing pleasure
personal space
the physical space individuals maintain between themselves and others
time-space
when and where events occur
regionalization
the division of social life into different regional settings or zones
clock time
time as measured by the clock, in terms of hours, minutes, and seconds. Before the invention of clocks, time reckoning was based on events in the natural world, such as the rising and setting of the sun
compulsion of proximity
people’s need to interact with others in their presence
network
a set of direct or indirect social ties that links people to one another
social group
a collection of people who regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations concerning behavior and who share a sense of common identity
social aggregate
a collection of people who happen to be together in a particular place but do not significantly interact or identify with one another
social category
people who share a common characteristic (such as gender or occupation) but do not necessarily interact or identify with one another
in-groups
groups toward which one feels particular loyalty and respect - the groups to which “we” belong
out-groups
groups toward which one feels antagonism and contempt - “those people”
primary group
a group that is characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of commitment
secondary group
a group characterized by its large size and by impersonal, fleeing relationships
reference group
a group that provides a standard for judging one’s attitudes or behaviors
dyad
a group consisting of two persons
triad
a group consisting of three persons
leader
person who is able to influence the behavior of other members of a group
transformational leaders
leaders who are able to instill in the members of a group a sense of mission or higher purpose, thereby changing the nature of the group itself
transactional leaders
leaders who are concerned with accomplishing the group’s tasks, getting group members to do their jobs, and making certain that the group achieves its goals
groupthink
a process by which the members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against the group consensus
organization
a large group of individuals with a definite set of authority relations. Many types of organizations exist in industrialized societies, influencing most aspects of our lives. While not all organizations are bureaucratic, there are close links between the development of organizations and bureaucratic tendencies
formal organization
means by which a group is rationally designed to achieve its objectives, often using explicit rules, regulations, and procedures
bureaucracy
a type of organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and the existence of written rules of procedure and staffed by full-time salaried officials
ideal type
a “pure type” constructed by emphasizing certain traits of a social item that do not necessarily exist in reality. An example is Max Weber’s ideal type of bureaucratic organization
formal relations
relations that exist in groups and organizations, laid down by the norms or rules of the official system of authority
informal relations
relations that exist in groups and organizations developed on the basis of personal connections; ways of doing things that depart from formally recognized modes of procedure
iron law of oligarchy
a term coined by Weber’s student Robert Michels meaning that large organizations tend toward centralization of power, making democracy difficult
oligarchy
rule by a small minority within an organization or society
human resource management
a style of management that regards a company’s workforce as vital to its economic competitiveness
corporate culture
an organizational culture involving rituals, events, or traditions that are unique to a specific company
information technology
forms of technology based on information processing and requiring microelectronic circuitry
social capital
the social knowledge and connections that enable people to accomplish their goals and extend their influence
family
a group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are often responsible for the upbringing of children
kinship
a relation that links individuals through blood, ties, marriage, or adoption
extended family
a family group consisting of more than two generations of relatives
family of orientation
the family into which an individual is born or adopted
family of procreation
the family an individual initiates through marriage or by having children
monogamy
a form of marriage in which each married partner is allowed only one spouse at any given time
polygamy
a form of marriage in which a person may have two or more spouses simultaneously
polygyny
a form of marriage in which a man may have two or more wives simultaneously
polyandry
a form of marriage in which a woman may have two or more husbands simultaneously
primary socialization
the process by which children learn the cultural norms of the society into which they are born. Primary socialization occurs largely in one’s family
personality stabilization
according to the theory of functionalism, the role families play in assisting adult members emotionally. Marriage between adults is the arrangement through which adult personalities are supported and kept healthy
stepfamily
a family in which at least one partner has children from a previous marriage
cohabitation
two people living together in a sexual relationship of some permanence without being married to each other
second parent adoption
a family in which one partner adopts a child and the other partner applies to be a second parent or co-parent
joint adoption
a family in which both partners adopt a child together
universal health coverage
public health care programs motivated by the goal of providing affordable health services to all members of a population
social class gradient in health
the strong inverse association between socioeconomic resources and risk of illness or death
sociology of the body
field that focuses on how our bodies are affected by our social experiences. Health and illness, for instance, are shaped by social, cultural and economic influences
obesity
excessive body weight, indicated by a body index (BMI) over 30
food deserts
geographic areas in which residents do not have easy access to high-quality affordable food. These regions are concentrated in rural areas and poor urban neighborhoods
sick role
a term Talcott Parsons used to describe the patterns of behavior that a sick person adopts in order to minimize the disruptive impact of his or her illness on others
stigma
any physical or social characteristic that is labeled by society as undesirable
complementary and alternative medicine(CAM)
a diverse set of approaches and therapies for treating illness and promoting well-being that generally fall outside of standard medical practices
biomedical model of health
the set of principles underpinning Western medical systems and practices that define disease objectively and hold that the healthy body can be restored through scientifically based medical treatment
heteronormativity
the pervasive cultural belief that heterosexuality is the only normal and natural expression of human sexuality
heterosexism
an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community
homophobia
an irrational fear or disdain of homosexuality
transphobia
negative attitudes, feelings, or actions toward transgender and gender-nonconforming people, their lifestyles, and their practices
