Module 4 Flashcards
actin
protein found especially in thin filament (as those comprising myofibrils) and active in muscular contraction
myosin
protein found in muscle tissue as a thick filament (as those comprising myofibrils) and active in muscular contraction
osteoarthritis
degenerative joint disease, cartilage breaks down
endoskeleton
internal support structure
osteoporosis
bone becomes less dense, losing calcium
exoskeleton
most common type, internal muscles pull against the exoskeleton enabling the animal to move
rheumatoid arthritis
inflammation of the joint membranes in the hands and feet
fermentation
occur when normal, oxygen-using (aerobic) cellular respiration is not possible. Consist of glycolysis
rigor mortis
stiffening of body after death, caused by lack of ATP, myosin cross bridges cannot release from actin
growth plate
growth becomes concentrated near the ends of the long bones in thin disks of cartilage
sprain
stretched or torn ligament
scoliosis
sideways curvature of the spine (S shape), disorder of axial skeleton
hydrostatic skeleton
flexible and consists of a constrained fluid
joint
area where two bones meet
tendon
tough bands of connective tissue that attach bone to muscle
ligament
tough bands of connective tissue that attach bone to bone
neuromuscular junctions
where nerves and muscle fibers meet—is an essential synapse for muscle contraction and movement
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Where inside bone are blood cells produced?
Red Marrow
Axial skeleton
located along the central axis of the body. It shields soft parts like the brain and sense organs
What are some functions of calcium?
Makes bones hard, vital for muscle contraction, blood clotting, activity of enzymes, etc.
Bones of the Axial skeleton
consists of bones of the head, vertebral column and rib cage.
Appendicular skeleton
consists of limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle
Bones of the upper limb
Pectoral girdle (the clavicle, scapula), humerus, radius, ulna and hand bones.
Bones of the lower limb
pelvic girdle, femur, tibia, fibula, feet bones
Name the vertebrae categories in descending order
7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae
myofibrils
bundles of parallel protein filaments running the length of the cell
Proteins that comprise myofibrils
Thin filament (actin) and thick filament (myosin)
How do muscles cells make energy when there is lack of oxygen?
Fermentation
Slow twitch fibers
produce twitches of long duration, abundant mitochondria here supports endurance.
Fast twitch fibers
power quickly in short duration twitches, low density of mitochondria, tire quickly.
How do muscles contract?
Electrical signal in muscle is started. Myosin heads bind to actin filaments. ATP releases from actin and bind to exposed myosin. This provides energy for myosin to release from actin and be cocked again and go to the next actin molecule, further down.
masseter muscle
lifts the lower jaw to close the mouth and it is the strongest muscle in your body.
temporalis muscle
helps close the mouth.
triceps’ primary function
extending the forearm at the elbow joint, which opposes the action of the flexors such as the biceps brachii.
Biceps brachii muscle
main muscle that pops out when flexing your arm.
Bone development and growth: Embryo
Bones in embryo originate as cartilage models.
Bone development and growth: fetus
As fetus grow, each model’s matrix hardens with calcium salts
Bone development and growth: Fetus after birth
bone growth becomes concentrated near the ends of the long bones in thin disks of cartilage called growth plates.
Bone development and growth: Teenage/Adulthood
Bone tissue begins to replace the cartilage growth plates as a person goes into teenage and adult years. Bones are complete in adulthood but can be remodeled by exercise and weight lifting.
How do muscles and skeletons work together?
Muscles provide motion and skeleton provides firm supporting structure for muscles to pull against
vertebral column
supports and protects spinal cord, has 33 vertebrae, separated by cartilage disks that cushion shocks
Bone weight is reduced by the marrow cavity. What is it?
space occupying the center of the shaft
red bone marrow
makes red and white blood cells, plus platelets
yellow bone marrow
replaces red bone marrow in the marrow cavity
What does collagen do for bone?
Provides flexibility, elasticity, and strength
Where does the hardness of bones come from?
minerals like calcium and phosphate, these coat collagen fibers
Shaft of long bone consists mostly of…
compact bone overlying a layer of spongy bone
Bulbous tips contain what type of bone?
spongy bone
Compact bone tissue
dense type of bone tissue, its canals house blood vessels and nervous tissue
Spongy bone tissue
lighter due to web of bony struts enclosing large spaces filled with red marrow
Cartilage
main connective tissue in the skeleton, covers ends of bones; tough elastic protein
Even when bearing great weight, ________ resists breakage and stretching
cartilage
Why is cartilage a good shock absorber?
its protein network holds a lot of water
How does cartilage get nutrients, since it lacks blood supply?
water within cartilage cleanses the tissue and bathes it with dissolved nutrients from nearby blood vessels, slow to heal because of this
strain
injury to muscle or tendon
What is an ACL?
Anterior cruciate ligament, crisscross at the knee, connecting thighbone to shinbone
What controls the exchange of calcium between blood and bone?
hormones from thyroid and parathyroid glands
Sliding filament model
muscle cell contracts when thin filaments slide between thick ones
Why are skeletal muscles striated?
because of alternating arrangement of thick and thin filaments
Motor neuron
delivers the signal to contract at a specialized synapse between neuron and muscle cell
Each branch of the motor neuron’s axon leads to…
a different muscle cell, one motor neuron can control multiple muscle cells
Motor unit
motor neuron and muscles
What disease interferes with neural signals stimulating muscle contractions?
Polio
________ is released when neurotransmitter releases from the synapse of a muscle cell, allows myosin head to bind to contract, sacromeres are free to contract
Calcium
Huge amounts of ______ are needed to break the connection between actin and myosin
ATP
What supplies gives high energy phosphates for ATP production for muscle cells?
creatine phosphate
What does a growth in muscle cell mean?
More mitochondria, more blood and glycogen supply
What causes increase in muscle mass?
growth of individual muscle cells, not increase in amount
aerobic respiration
process of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen gas to produce energy from food
carotid arteries
brings blood from heart to brain
murmur
abnormally functioning valve
agglutination
reaction in which red blood cells suspended in a liquid collect into clumps and which occurs especially as a serological response to a specific antibody
cystic fibrosis
Creates abnormally thick mucus. This mucus builds up in the breathing passages of the lungs
plasma
liquid matrix of blood, exchange water and dissolved substances with interstitial fluid, maintains homeostasis in cells
alveoli
ends of bronchioles, where gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs
platelets
participate in blood clotting, come from cell fragments, attracts clotting factors when it gets stuck to leaks/cuts in body
anemia
condition that develops when your blood produces a lower-than-normal amount of healthy RBC’s
defibrillator
devices that apply an electric charge or current to the heart to restore a normal heartbeat when a potentially fatal arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) is happening in your heart’s lower chambers (ventricles)
diaphragm
major muscle of respiration. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time, involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges.
sinoatrial node
aka pacemaker, region of specialized cardiac muscle cells in the upper wall of the right atrium, sets tempo of bpm. Each beat, cells of pacemaker fire stimulate the cardiac cells of atria to contract
diastolic pressure
lower number, when ventricles relax
aorta
carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
sleep apnea
breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, which can result in low levels of oxygen
arrhythmia
problem with the rate or rhythm of your heartbeat. Your heart may beat too quickly, too slowly, or with an irregular rhythm
emphysema
lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged.
superior vena cava: receives blood from areas above the diaphragm
arterioles
small arteries
EPO
produced by the kidney, stimulates red blood cell production
systolic pressure
upper number, powerful contraction of ventricles
atherosclerosis
thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by a buildup of plaque in the inner lining of an artery
hemoglobin
pigment in RBC’s, carries oxygen
valve
parts of your heart that act like doors. They open and close to let blood flow from one area of your heart to another. Prevent the backward flow of blood
atrium
the two upper chambers which pump blood to the two lower ventricles.
inferior vena cava
receives blood from areas below the diaphragm
vasoconstriction
narrowing of blood vessels that occurs when smooth muscle in arteriole walls contracts, diameter decreases, BP rises
bicarbonate
been routinely used during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in cardiac arrest to correct metabolic acidosis
interstitial fluid
Fluid found in the spaces around cells. It comes from substances that leak out of blood capillaries (the smallest type of blood vessel). It helps bring oxygen and nutrients to cells and to remove waste products from them.
vasodilation
widening of blood vessels that occurs when the same muscles relax
blood pressure
force that blood exerts on vessel walls
ventricles
the two lower chambers of the heart, one on the right and one on the left. The ventricles receive blood from the heart’s upper chambers (atria) and pump it to the rest of the body.
leukocytes
WBC’s, manages immune responses
capillary
They deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells while removing carbon dioxide to be eliminated from the lungs. Connects venules and arterioles
Largest veins of the body
Jugular Vein, Superior Vena Cava, pulmonary veins, heart, inferior vena cava, femoral vein
Jugular Vein
head to heart
femoral vein
receives blood from thigh to inner knee
largest artery of the body
common carotid artery, aorta, pulmonary arteries, brachial artery, renal artery, abdominal aorta, femoral artery
common carotid artery
main blood supply to the head and neck
abdominal aorta
blood to lower extremities
femoral artery
blood from thigh to inner knee
Arteries that supply the heart tissue itself
The coronary arteries are major blood vessels in your body, supplying blood to your heart.
Pulmonary artery
has oxygen poor blood from right atrium, goes to lungs where blood picks up O2 and unloads CO2
Pulmonary veins
carry oxygen rich blood from lungs to left atrium of heart, completing pulmonary circuit.
Heart blood flow
right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, left atrium, left ventricle, then pumps this blood out to your body
Where is the heart’s pacemaker located
Located in the upper wall of the right atrium
Oxygen transport in the blood
Oxygen is carried both physically dissolved in the blood and chemically combined to hemoglobin. RBC’s transport 99% of O2, rest dissolved in plasma (1%).
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
To carry CO2, enzymes in RBC’s convert it to bicarbonate ions that diffuse into plasma (water used for conversion).
How does an artificial pacemaker work to help the heart?
Artificial pacemakers help the heart beat in a regular rhythm, treats arrhythmias
tissue layers and structure of arteries and veins
Arteries have thick layer of smooth muscle, withstands the high pressure surges of blood leaving the heart. Veins have absent or reduced smooth muscle layers, this is why they collapse when empty
What makes capillaries special?
Capillary walls consist of a single layer of endothelial cells, so nutrients and gases easily diffuse into and out of capillaries and around interstitial fluid
Blood pressure
the force that blood exerts on vessel walls
What measures BP
Sphygomomanometer measures BP in the artery of the upper arm
Vasoconstriction and BP
Vasoconstriction makes BP rise
Vasodilation and BP
Vasodilation makes BP fall.
How does the brain regulate BP?
When BP is high or low, signals are sent to the medulla, where it either constricts or widens diameter of arterioles.
Upper respiratory system
has the nose, pharynx, and larynx. It provides a passage for air to be breathed in and out of the lungs, also heats, humidifies and filters the air and is involved in cough, swallowing and speech. Keeps lungs moist.
How does the brain regulate breathing rate?
During exercise, cells dump CO2 into blood, decreasing blood pH. Brain detects change in pH and increases breathing rate, releases excess CO2 and enters O2. Inverse is also true, if blood pH rises, the brain detects this and decreases breathing rate, keeping more CO2.
The lower respiratory system
consists of the trachea, the bronchi and bronchioles, and the alveoli, which make up the lungs. These structures pull in air from the upper respiratory system, absorb the oxygen, and release carbon dioxide in exchange.
acid reflux
gastric juices emerge through stomach sphincter and burns esophagus
epiglottis
covers trachea so food enters GI tract
pellagra
Deficiency of Niacin, B3. It is characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and mental disturbance
active transport
movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration—against the concentration gradient, requires energy
esophagus
organ that food travels through to reach the stomach for further digestion
ADH
aka vasopressin, antidiuretic hormone, triggers reabsorption of water, urine becomes concentrated
pepsin
enzyme in stomach that digests proteins
rickets
deficiency of vitamin D. Characterized by bowed legs and skeletal deformities
gallbladder
stores bile, triggered by release of chyme into small intestine
peristalsis
rhythmic moving of GI tract
amylase
made in pancreas, digests starch
aldosterone
released by adrenal gland, regulates BP, causes volume of blood to go up, which makes BP rise
rumen
the first stomach of a ruminant, which receives food or cud from the esophagus, partly digests it with the aid of bacteria, and passes it to the reticulum
appendix
vestigial hollow tube that is attached at the other end to the cecum, a pouchlike beginning of the large intestine into which the small intestine empties its contents
kidney stones
hard, pebble-like pieces of material that form in one or both of your kidneys when high levels of certain minerals are in your urine
scurvy
deficiency of vitamin C. Characterized by gum bleeding
microvilli
The cells on the villi are packed full of tiny hairlike structures
bile
digests fat, made by liver, stored by gallbladder
lipase
a pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids
stomach
muscular bag that receives food from esophagus
urea
A substance formed by the breakdown of protein in the liver. The kidneys filter urea out of the blood and into the urine.
diuretic
type of drug that causes the kidneys to make more urine; used to treat high blood pressure and edema
cecum
start of large intestine, absorption of large volumes of water and electrolytes, connects to ascending colon
ureter
urine drains from kidneys to here, connects it to bladder
villi
The folds form numerous tiny projections which stick out into the open space inside your small intestine (or lumen), absorb nutrients
celiac disease
immune response to gluten that attacks the small intestine.
urethra
tube that connects bladder with outside body
urinary bladder
saclike muscular organ that stores urine
nephron
the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. They are the microscopic structure composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
osmoregulation
maintenance by an organism of an internal balance between water and dissolved materials
chyme
made in stomach, mix of gastric juice and food
dialysis
procedure to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys stop working properly.
BMI Healthy
19-25
Which 2 hormones help with the reabsorption of more water and increase blood pressure?
ADH and Aldosterone
What bacteria is associated with gastric ulcers and how does it survive in the stomach?
H. pylori causes gastric ulcers, survives by neutralizing stomach acid
BMI Obesity
More than 30
Aerobic respiration could not occur without…
ATP
Blood
connective tissue consisting of cells and cell fragments, suspended in extracellular matrix aka plasma
Plasma contains…
clotting proteins
How long do RBC’s stick around, and where do they go?
120 days, ends up in spleen to be recycled
pulmonary circulation
blood gets O2, releases CO2 into lungs and returns to heart (heart, lungs, heart)
systematic circulation
blood circulates through the rest of the body to unload O2 and pick up CO2 before returning to heart (heart, body, heart)
During circulation, what veins bring blood to the right atrium?
superior and inferior vena cava
What sets the tempo of the bpm?
sinoatrial node (pacemaker)
AV (atrioventricular) node
causes ventricles to contract
systolic pressure
upper number of BP reading, reflects contraction of ventricles
larynx
Adam’s apple, produces voice
diastolic pressure
lower number, when ventricles relax
trachea
aka windpipe, directly beneath larynx, held up by C-shaped rings of cartilage, branches into the two bronchi
What is the stomach’s job?
Not much nutrient absorption, continues mechanical and chemical digestion of food
What is gastric juice?
in stomach, mixture of water, mucus, ions, HCL, and enzymes such as pepsin
bronchioles
little branches, lead to alveoli in the lungs as it keeps branching from bronchi
First part of small intestine?
duodenum
Most digestive enzymes come from…
pancreas
What breaks polypeptides into amino acid, made in pancreas?
trypsin and chymotrypsin
nucleases
split nucleic acids (DNA) into nucleotides
sodium bicarbonate, made in pancreas
neutralizes acid from stomach
Why is bile needed with lipase enzymes?
lipase enzymes are water soluble, bile disperses fat into tiny pockets suspended in water
Bile is made in the… and stores in the…
liver, gallbladder
When does gallbladder release bile?
when chyme enters s. intestine
What does the liver do?
detoxification, glycogen storage, storage of fat-soluble vitamins, and produce blood clotting proteins
Main functions of large intestine?
absorbs water and ions, eliminate waste materials as feces
What is feces made up of?
undigested fibers, bacteria, intestinal cells
Kidney jobs
eliminate urea/toxins, conserve water, ions, nutrients (glucose, amino acids)
Kidney and blood
regulates blood pH and volume of blood in the body (influences BP) by controlling water lost
Nephron blood flow
gets blood from renal artery and capillaries surround each nephron
renal vein
kidney capillaries converge here, carries cleanses blood out of kidney back to heart
Nephron filter
receives fluid from blood
Nephron tubule
filtered solution from nephron tubule, goes to outer portion of kidney
Where does fluid go after nephron?
collecting duct receives fluid from nephron, empties into the ureter, urinary bladder, then urethra
How does ADH affect nephron?
triggers reabsorption of more water at the nephron and collecting duct, urine becomes more concentrated as a result
How does diuretic and alcohol affect ADH?
reduces ADH secretion, decreases water absorption, intensifies thirst
How does aldosterone affect nephron tubule?
stimulates the production of sodium channels in the tubule, boosts reabsorption of sodium ions which water follows, increasing blood volume
